Dynamics of Pond Aquaculture

472 Pages·1997·22.3 MB·English

by  Hillary S. Egna

Dynamics of
POND
Aquaculture
Edited by
Hillary S. Egna
Oregon State University
Corvallis, Oregon
Claude E. Boyd
Auburn University
Auburn, Alabama
CRC PR ESS
Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C.
The contents of this book are primarily an outcome of the Pond Dynamics/Aquaculture Collaborative Research Support
Program, sponsored in part by Grant No. DAN-4023-G-00-0031-00 of the United States Agency for International Devel-
opment’s Office of Agriculture and Food Security. The program is intended to support collaborative aquaculture research
between the United States and developing countries’ universities and research institutions. The opinions expressed herein
are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the United States Agency for International Development.
The chapters in this book were written, submitted, reviewed and revised over the period from 1992 to 1996.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Dynamics of pond aquaculture / edited by Hillary S. Egna and Claude E. Boyd.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 1-56670-274-7
1. Pond aquaculture. I. Egna, Hillary S. II. Boyd, Claude E.
SH137.4.D96 1997
639.3¢—dc21 96-52335
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with
permission, and sources are indicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish
reliable data and information, but the authors and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials
or for the consequences of their use.
Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without prior
permission in writing from the publisher.
All rights reserved. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use, or the personal or internal use of specific
clients, may be granted by CRC Press LLC, provided that $.50 per page photocopied is paid directly to Copyright Clearance
Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923 USA The fee code for users of the Transactional Reporting Service is
ISBN 1-56670-274-7/97/$0.00+$.50. The fee is subject to change without notice. For organizations that have been granted
a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged.
The consent of CRC Press LLC does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works,
or for resale. Specific permission must be obtained in writing from CRC Press LLC for such copying.
Direct all inquiries to CRC Press LLC, 2000 N.W. Corporate Blvd., Boca Raton, Florida 33431.
Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for
identification and explanation, without intent to infringe.
Visit the CRC Press Web site at www.crcpress.com
© 1997 by CRC Press LLC
Lewis Publishersis an imprint of CRC Press LLC
No claim to original U.S. Government works
International Standard Book Number 1-56670-274-7
Library of Congress Card Number 96-52335
Printed in the United States of America 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
Printed on acid-free paper
DEDICATION
To Bucyanayandi Jean-Damascène, Gasana Félicien, Gatera Anaclet, Kajyibwami Emmanuel,
Kamanzi Jean Bosco, Mukundwa Alvera, Murokore, Ndayisaba Jean, Ndoreyaho Valens, Nsanga-
niye Onesphore, Uwizeyimana Eugénie, and others too numerous to name but not too numerous
to forget. We remember that war claims unfairly those we respect, love, admire, and care for. All
of us in the Pond Dynamics/Aquaculture CRSP hope for peace in Rwanda.

CONTENTS
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Hillary S. Egna, Claude E. Boyd, and Deborah A. Burke
Pond Aquaculture...............................................................................................................................1
The Role of Pond Aquaculture...................................................................................................1
Types of Pond Aquaculture........................................................................................................2
Pond Dynamics...........................................................................................................................3
Tilapia Culture............................................................................................................................4
Pond Management......................................................................................................................5
Research Needs in Aquaculture.........................................................................................................7
PD/A CRSP Contributions to Aquaculture.....................................................................................15
The Goal of the PD/A CRSP...................................................................................................15
Constraints and PD/A CRSP Contributions.............................................................................15
References........................................................................................................................................18
Chapter 2
HISTORY OF THE POND DYNAMICS/AQUACULTURE
COLLABORATIVE RESEARCH SUPPORT PROGRAM
Hillary S. Egna
History of the Collaborative Research Support Programs..............................................................19
Historical Overview of the Social Sciences in the
Collaborative Research Programs.............................................................................................21
CRSP Structure and Concept...................................................................................................22
Overview of Aquaculture in U.S. Foreign Assistance....................................................................23
Parallel Developments in Domestic and International Aquaculture........................................23
Brief History of International Aquaculture Development
Activities in USAID.................................................................................................................26
Pond Dynamics/Aquaculture CRSP History and Early Identification
of Research Priorities.......................................................................................................................35
Research Sites and Institutional Linkages...............................................................................40
The Global Experiment............................................................................................................41
Data Management, The Central Data Base, and Data Synthesis............................................45
Research Objectives..................................................................................................................45
Evolving Directions in Pond Dynamics/Aquaculture Research,
1980 to 1995.............................................................................................................................48
Acknowledgments............................................................................................................................49
References........................................................................................................................................49
Chapter 3
WATER QUALITY IN PONDS
James S. Diana, James P. Szyper, Ted R. Batterson, Claude E. Boyd, and Raul H. Piedrahita
Introduction......................................................................................................................................53
Light.................................................................................................................................................54
Nutrients and Metabolites................................................................................................................55
Carbon Dioxide, Alkalinity, and pH.........................................................................................55
Nitrogen....................................................................................................................................57
Phosphorus................................................................................................................................58
Plankton Activity..............................................................................................................................59
Standing Crops..........................................................................................................................59
Photosynthesis Rate — Oxygen Production............................................................................60
Water Temperature...........................................................................................................................61
Dissolved Oxygen............................................................................................................................62
Daily Fluctuations.....................................................................................................................62
Depth Stratification...................................................................................................................63
Diffusion of Oxygen into Ponds..............................................................................................64
Mechanical Aeration.................................................................................................................64
Effects of Dissolved Oxygen Concentration on Tilapia in Ponds..................................................64
Automated Data Collection Systems...............................................................................................65
Temperature Monitoring...........................................................................................................65
Dissolved Oxygen Monitoring.................................................................................................66
Monitoring of Other Parameters...............................................................................................67
Automated Control...................................................................................................................68
References........................................................................................................................................69
Chapter 4
FERTILIZATION REGIMES
C. Kwei Lin, David R. Teichert-Coddington, Bartholomew W. Green, and Karen L. Veverica
Introduction......................................................................................................................................73
Principles of Pond Fertilization.......................................................................................................73
Chemical Fertilization of Tilapia Ponds..........................................................................................75
Animal Manures...............................................................................................................................78
Manure Composition................................................................................................................78
Nutrient Content and Leaching................................................................................................78
Fish Yields.................................................................................................................................80
Animal Manures as a Carbon and Detrital Source..................................................................80
Fertilization with Waste from Intensive Fish Culture..............................................................81
Nitrogen Supplement................................................................................................................82
Green Fodders and Manures............................................................................................................82
Benefits from Nitrogen Fixation in Tropical Ponds........................................................................85
Factors Affecting Responses to Fertilization...................................................................................85
Light and Temperature Regime................................................................................................85
Acidic Soils and Water.............................................................................................................86
Clay Turbidity...........................................................................................................................89
Low Alkalinity and Liming......................................................................................................89
Fertilization Effects on Water Quality.............................................................................................91
Nutrients....................................................................................................................................91
Alkalinity..................................................................................................................................91
Dissolved Oxygen.....................................................................................................................92
Ammonia...................................................................................................................................92
Comparative Evaluation of CRSP Fertilization Experiments.........................................................93
Phytoplankton Production.........................................................................................................93
Fish Yields.................................................................................................................................94
Recommendations for Fertilizing Tilapia Ponds...........................................................................100
Fertilization Strategies............................................................................................................100
Fertilization Rates...................................................................................................................101
Fertilization Frequency...........................................................................................................102
Summary of Recommendations..............................................................................................102
References......................................................................................................................................103
Chapter 5
CLIMATE, SITE, AND POND DESIGN
Anita M. Kelly and Christopher C. Kohler
Introduction....................................................................................................................................109
Climatic Factors.............................................................................................................................109
Solar Radiation.......................................................................................................................110
Saltwater Ponds.......................................................................................................................112
Rainfall....................................................................................................................................112
Evaporation.............................................................................................................................112
Soil Properties................................................................................................................................114
Topography.............................................................................................................................114
Texture and Organic Matter....................................................................................................114
Water Supply..................................................................................................................................117
Surface Water..........................................................................................................................117
Groundwater............................................................................................................................118
Water Supply Quality.............................................................................................................119
Guidelines for Site Selection and Pond Design............................................................................119
Barrage Ponds.........................................................................................................................121
Embankment Ponds................................................................................................................121
Watershed Ponds.....................................................................................................................122
Diversion Ponds......................................................................................................................122
Pond Management..........................................................................................................................122
Erosion....................................................................................................................................122
Aquatic Weeds........................................................................................................................123
Water Budgets................................................................................................................................124
Seepage Control......................................................................................................................125
Pond Design...................................................................................................................................127
Conclusion......................................................................................................................................131
References......................................................................................................................................132
Chapter 6
POND BOTTOM SOILS
Claude E. Boyd and James R. Bowman
Introduction....................................................................................................................................135
Pond Soils and Fish Production....................................................................................................135
Soil Texture.............................................................................................................................135
Organic Matter........................................................................................................................136
Soil Acidity.............................................................................................................................136
Soil Nutrients..........................................................................................................................137
Soil Classification...................................................................................................................137
Pond Soils at PD/A CRSP Sites....................................................................................................138
Physical Composition of Soils...............................................................................................138
Chemical Characteristics of Soils...........................................................................................141
Effects of Soil on Supply Water.............................................................................................142
Soil–Water Interactions...........................................................................................................145
Bottom Soil Respiration.................................................................................................................145
Bottom Soil Treatments.................................................................................................................146
Nitrogen Application...............................................................................................................148
Aeration...................................................................................................................................148
Draining..................................................................................................................................148
Drying.....................................................................................................................................149
Pond Soil Classification.................................................................................................................151
Textural Classification............................................................................................................151
The CRSP Soil Classification System....................................................................................153
Lime Requirement Methods..........................................................................................................155
Buffer Method for Ponds........................................................................................................158
Modified Buffer Method for Ponds........................................................................................158
Direct Calculation of Lime Requirements.............................................................................158
References......................................................................................................................................160
Chapter 7
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
Wayne K. Seim, Claude E. Boyd, and James S. Diana
Introduction....................................................................................................................................163
Pond Effluent..................................................................................................................................164
Volume....................................................................................................................................164
Chemical Characteristics........................................................................................................166
Treatment................................................................................................................................167
Contamination of Pond Systems...................................................................................................168
Heavy Metals..........................................................................................................................168
Pesticides.................................................................................................................................169
Drugs and Other Chemicals Used in Aquaculture........................................................................171
Landscape Alteration......................................................................................................................173
Wetland Destruction................................................................................................................173
Sustainability in Aquaculture.........................................................................................................174
Aquaculture and Human Diseases..........................................................................................175
Regulations..............................................................................................................................176
Biological Conservation.................................................................................................................178
Exotic Species or Strains........................................................................................................178
References......................................................................................................................................179
Chapter 8
ATTRIBUTES OF TROPICAL POND-CULTURED FISH
David R. Teichert-Coddington, Thomas J. Popma, and Leonard L. Lovshin
Introduction....................................................................................................................................183
Attributes of Pond Fish..................................................................................................................184
Handling Tolerance.................................................................................................................184
Crowding Tolerance................................................................................................................185
Low Susceptibility to Disease................................................................................................185
Toleration of Poor Water Quality...........................................................................................185
Efficient Conversion of Natural Foods and Feed...................................................................186
Controllable Reproduction......................................................................................................187
Marketable and Profitable.......................................................................................................187
Tilapia: A Model Culture Fish.......................................................................................................188
Nomenclature..........................................................................................................................188
Disease Tolerance...................................................................................................................189
Water Quality..........................................................................................................................189
Conversion of Natural Foods and Feed..................................................................................191
Reproduction Characteristics of Tilapia.................................................................................193
Marketability of Tilapia..........................................................................................................194
References......................................................................................................................................195
Chapter 9
FACTORS AFFECTING FISH GROWTH AND PRODUCTION
Richard W. Soderberg
Introduction....................................................................................................................................199
Description of Growth...................................................................................................................199
Factors Affecting Growth...............................................................................................................201
Endogenous Factors................................................................................................................202
Exogenous Factors..................................................................................................................202
Bioenergetic Budgets for Aquaculture...................................................................................205
Fish Growth in Tropical Aquaculture............................................................................................206
Reporting Fish Growth...........................................................................................................206
Low-Intensity Aquacultures....................................................................................................208
Intensive Aquacultures............................................................................................................209
References......................................................................................................................................211
Chapter 10
FRY AND FINGERLING PRODUCTION
Bartholomew W. Green, Karen L. Veverica, and Martin S. Fitzpatrick
Introduction....................................................................................................................................215
Tilapia Broodstock.........................................................................................................................216
Factors Affecting Tilapia Fry Production......................................................................................216
Age and Size...........................................................................................................................216
Breeding Intensity...................................................................................................................217
Water Temperature..................................................................................................................218
Salinity....................................................................................................................................219
Harvest Efficiency...................................................................................................................219
Incubation Success..................................................................................................................220
Tilapia Fingerling Production Systems.........................................................................................221
Fingerling Production in Grow-Out Ponds............................................................................224
Earthen Spawning Ponds........................................................................................................224
Hapas.......................................................................................................................................226
Concrete or Fiberglass Tanks.................................................................................................227
Production of Monosex Fingerlings..............................................................................................227