“Dual Containment” Policy in the Persian Gulf: The USA, Iran, and Iraq, 1991–2000 PDF
Preview “Dual Containment” Policy in the Persian Gulf: The USA, Iran, and Iraq, 1991–2000
Middle East Today Series editors: Fawaz A. Gerges Professor of International Relations Emirates Chair of the Modern Middle East Department of International Relations London School of Economics Nader Hashemi Director, Center for Middle East Studies Associate Professor of Middle East and Islamic Politics Josef Korbel School of International Studies University of Denver The Iranian Revolution of 1979, the Iran-Iraq War, the Gulf War, and the US invasion and occupation of Iraq have dramatically altered the geopolitical land- scape of the contemporary Middle East. The Arab Spring uprisings have compli- cated this picture. This series puts forward a critical body of first-rate scholarship that reflects the current political and social realities of the region, focusing on original research about contentious politics and social movements; political institutions; the role played by nongovernmental organizations such as Hamas, Hezbollah, and the Muslim Brotherhood; and the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Other themes of interest include Iran and Turkey as emerging preeminent pow- ers in the region, the former an “Islamic Republic” and the latter an emerging democracy currently governed by a party with Islamic roots; the Gulf monar- chies, their petrol economies and regional ambitions; potential problems of nuclear proliferation in the region; and the challenges confronting the United States, Europe, and the United Nations in the greater Middle East. The focus of the series is on general topics such as social turmoil, war and revolution, interna- tional relations, occupation, radicalism, democracy, human rights, and Islam as a political force in the context of the modern Middle East. Ali Shari’ati and the Shaping of Political Islam in Iran Kingshuk Chatterjee Religion and the State in Turkish Universities: The Headscarf Ban Fatma Nevra Seggie Turkish Foreign Policy: Islam, Nationalism, and Globalization Hasan Kösebalaban Nonviolent Resistance in the Second Intifada: Activism and Advocacy Edited by Maia Carter Hallward and Julie M. Norman The Constitutional System of Turkey: 1876 to the Present Ergun Özbudun Islam, the State, and Political Authority: Medieval Issues and Modern Concerns Edited by Asma Afsaruddin Bahrain from the Twentieth Century to the Arab Spring Miriam Joyce Palestinian Activism in Israel: A Bedouin Woman Leader in a Changing Middle East Henriette Dahan-Kalev and Emilie Le Febvre with Amal El’Sana-Alh’jooj Egypt Awakening in the Early Twentieth Century: Mayy Ziyadah’s Intellectual Circles Boutheina Khaldi The Social and Economic Origins of Monarchy in Jordan Tariq Moraiwed Tell Palestinians in the Israeli Labour Market: A Multi-disciplinary Approach Edited by Nabil Khattab and Sami Miaari State, Religion, and Revolution in Iran, 1796 to the Present Behrooz Moazami The Role of Ideology in Syrian-US Relations: Conflict and Cooperation J. K. Gani Hezbollah, Islamist Politics, and International Society Filippo Dionigi “Dual Containment” Policy in the Persian Gulf: The USA, Iran, and Iraq, 1991–2000 Alex Edwards “Dual Containment” Policy in the Persian Gulf The USA, Iran, and Iraq, 1991–2000 Alex Edwards “DUAL CONTAINMENT” POLICY IN THE PERSIAN GULF Copyright © Alex Edwards, 2014. Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2014 978-1-137-43635-1 All rights reserved. First published in 2014 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN® in the United States— a division of St. Martin’s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010. Where this book is distributed in the UK, Europe and the rest of the world, this is by Palgrave Macmillan, a division of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS. Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the world. Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries. ISBN 978-1-349-49342-5 ISBN 978-1-137-44724-1 (eBook) DOI 10.1057/9781137447241 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available from the Library of Congress. A catalogue record of the book is available from the British Library. Design by Newgen Knowledge Works (P) Ltd., Chennai, India. First edition: December 2014 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Contents Acknowledgments ix 1 Introduction 1 Th e Signifi cance of “Dual Containment” 1 Th eoretical Neglect 2 A Gulf Policy for a New Era 3 Argument and Th eoretical Framework 6 Methodology 11 Structure of Book 13 2 US Foreign Policy in the Persian Gulf, 1945–91 17 American Interests in the Persian Gulf 17 US Proxies in the Gulf 21 Th e Twin Pillars Policy and Bilateral Relations with Gulf States 23 US-Saudi Relations 24 US-Iranian Relations 26 US-Iraqi Relations 28 Direct American Intervention aft er 1979 30 Conclusions 33 3 Th e Balance of Power in the Persian Gulf, 1945–91 35 Th e Geopolitical Structure of the Persian Gulf 36 Regional Political Factors 38 Th e Postwar Littoral States 40 Saudi Arabia 40 Iran 43 Iraq 45 Tripolar Dynamics in the Persian Gulf since Second World War 46 Conclusions 52 4 Dual Containment: Conception, Evolution, and Implementation 53 Th e Persian Gulf aft er 1991: Th e Birth of a New Policy? 54 Dual Containment and Iraq 59 Iraq and the US and UN Sanctions 60 vi CONTENTS Containment versus Regime Change 63 Was Iraq Successfully Contained? 64 Dual Containment and Iran 65 Iran and US Sanctions 66 US-Iranian Attempts at Reconciliation: 1997 Onward 72 Conclusions 75 5 A Triumphant America and a Villainous Iran: Perception as an Intervening Variable 77 Perceptions of Power and Opportunity 78 Perceptions of Th reat 79 Th e Hostage Crisis and Iran-Contra 83 Iran and Political Islam: Th e New Communism? 86 Accomodationists versus Confrontationalists 86 Rebels against the New World Order 89 Terrorism 90 Th e Role of Israel and the Arab-Israeli Peace Process 92 Rabin and Clinton 93 Enter Khatami and Netanyahu 94 Th e Peace Process 95 Conclusions 98 6 Two Voices: Domestic Structure as an Intervening Variable 101 Domestic Structure as an Intervening Variable 102 Congressional and Executive Roles in Foreign Policy 103 Th e Growth of Congressional Activism and Infl uence 107 Congressional Activism and Partisan Politics in the 1990s 109 Congress aft er the Cold War 113 Congressional Activism and Dual Containment 114 Conclusions 120 7 “Mischiefs of Faction”: Interest Groups as an Intervening Variable 123 Interest Groups, Foreign Policy, and Neoclassical Realism 124 Th e Pro-Israel Lobby: Infl uence, Not Power 127 Other Lobbies: Oil, Agricultural, and Ethnic 134 Arab and Iranian Americans 134 Business Lobbies 135 Lobbying: Legislative Outcomes 138 AIPAC versus Iran 138 Sanctions Challenged 142 Conclusions 144 CONTENTS vii 8 Conclusions and Intervening Variables Assessed 147 Dual Containment and the Persian Gulf 147 Dual Containment and US Politics 149 Intervening Variables Assessed 152 Implications for the Future of US-Iranian Ties 153 Notes 155 Bibliography 187 Index 205 This page intentionally left blank Acknowledgments The doctoral research that inspired this book could not have been completed without the support of my family, especially my parents. Without their assistance and encouragement I could not have embarked on this project in the first place, let alone complete it. I also owe a great debt to Dr. Katerina Dalacoura, my supervisor at the London School of Economics (LSE), for advice and guidance that was great in both quan- tity and quality throughout my tenure there. In addition, the process of researching and writing would have been far less enjoyable and a far less fulfilling experience without my friends and colleagues at the LSE and elsewhere, including Manuel Almeida, Adel Altoraifi, Gregorio Bettiza, Richard Campanaro, Filippo Dionigi, Kathryn Fisher, Rebekka Friedman, Andrew Jillions, Dionysis Markakis, Martin Niemetz, Kevork Oskanian, Carolina Pavese, Ramon Pachedo Pardo, Christopher Phillips, Yaniv Voller, and many more. Finally, I would also like to acknowledge a debt to my interview subjects in the United States, for both their time and their candor, and to Professor Fawaz Gerges of the LSE’s Department of International Relations, whose help in finding them was invaluable.
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