Diseases of Fruits and Vegetables: Diagnosis and Management

690 Pages·2004·6.64 MB·English

Diseases of Fruits and Vegetables
Volume I
Diseases of Fruits and
Vegetables
Diagnosis and Management
Volume I
Edited by
S.A.M.H. Naqvi
National Research Centre for Citrus (Indian Council of Agricultural Research),
Nagpur, Maharashtra, India
KLUWER ACADEMIC PUBLISHERS
NEW YORK,BOSTON, DORDRECHT, LONDON, MOSCOW
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CONTENTS
Preface ............................................................................. vii
List of Contributors ............................................................ xi
1. Apple Diseases and their Management ................................ 1
William W. Turechek
2. Diagnosis and Management of Virus and Virus like
Diseases of Citrus .............................................................. 109
C.N. Roistacher
3. Fungal Diseases of Fruit and Foliage of Citrus Trees............. 191
L.W. Timmer, S.N. Mondal, N.A.R. Peres and Alka Bhatia
4. Citrus Huanglongbing: Review, Present status and
Future Strategies................................................................. 229
J.V. da Graça and L. Korsten
5. Diagnosis and Management of Certain Important Fungal
Diseases of Citrus............................................................... 247
S.A.M.H.Naqvi
6. Certification Programs for Citrus.......................................... 291
Richard F. Lee
7. People, Arthropods, Weather and Citrus Diseases................. 307
Mani Skaria
8. Diagnosis and Management of Pre and Post-harvest
Diseases of Citrus fruit........................................................ 339
S.A.M.H. Naqvi
9. Preimmunization: Applications and Perspectivesin Virus
Disease control................................................................... 361
Gerd W. Muller and Jorge A. M. Rezende
10. Carrot Diseases and their Management................................ 397
R. Michael Davis
11. Celery Diseases and their Management................................ 441
Richard N. Raid
v
12. Diseases of Cucurbits and their Management....................... 455
Margaret Tuttle McGrath
13. Diseases and Disorders of Mango and their Management...... 511
Om Prakash
14. Epidemiology of Powdery Mildew, Downy Mildew and
Anthracnose Diseases of Grapevine..................................... 621
T.S. Thind, J.K. Arora, C. Mohan and Prem Raj
15. Virus Diseases of Pineapple................................................ 639
S.J. Singh
Author Index...................................................................... 653
Subject Index...................................................................... 679
vi
PREFACE
Among the Horticultural Crops, Fruits and Vegetables (FV) are of primary im-
portance as the key source of essential components in an adequate and balanced human
diet. FV have supported largely the daily food requirement of mankind since ages and
even before man learned to grow cereal crops systematically. Over the years, growing
FV has been the mainstay of rural economy and has emerged as an indispensable part
of agriculture world over, offering farmers a wide range of crops in varied topography
and climate. In certain parts of the world, FV are the major dietary staple. Apart from
being a rich source of vitamins and minerals, this sector also contributes significantly
in economy of the region or the nation. The increased income from per unit area of FV
is far ahead and can not be compared with that of cereal crops.
A recent survey by the Economist revealed that the world population has in-
creased by 90 % in the past 40 years while food production has increased only by 25 %
per head. With an additional 1.5 billion mouth to feed by 2020, farmers worldwide
have to produce 39 % more. Looking at the load of the future food requirement, the
global increased production of FV during last few years has absorbed the additional
food requirement and accordingly the eating habits are also changing and shifting to-
wards more consumption of these commodities worldwide. During 2002, world fruit
production excluding melons was recorded 471.377 million metric tons and that of
vegetables including melons 772.71 million metric tons and thus a total world produc-
tion of FV to the tune of 1244.377 million tones has substantially absorbed the addi-
tional food requirement needed for the increasing population (FAOSTAT ,2002).
Unlike cereal crops, there is a wide range of diversity available to farmers to
select suitable FV crops. However, the cultivation of these crops for optimum yield
and quality produce, is highly technical and needs improved technological support.
Management of perennial fruit crops requires further close monitoring especially for
the management of diseases that can affect production significantly and subsequently
the post-harvest life of these highly perishable commodities. In given favourable con-
ditions, even a single pathogen or disease may cause catastrophe and complete failure
of the crop. The famous Irish potato famine is a well-known example where single
disease could devastate the whole socio-economic fabric of the country and in fact laid
a strong foundation of Plant Pathology.
Obviously with area and population to feed, China stands first in production of
FV with 68.43 million tones of fruits and 368.57 million tons of vegetables in the world
followed by India with 48.57 million tons of fruits and 68.06 million tons of veg-
etables. India leads the world in production of banana, mango, sapota and acidlime and
among vegetables it is the largest producer of pea and cauliflower and second largest in
onion, brinjal (egg plant) and cabbage. However, there has been huge gap in produc-
tion per unit area in developing nations and developed nations though the area under
cultivation is far ahead in developing nations. Hence there is an ample scope and po-
tential in increasing production per unit area in developing nations and in certain devel-
oped nations. The low productivity and short productive life of fruit plants has been
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mainly attributed to the unavailability of disease free planting stocks and among veg-
etable crops, inadequate plant protection measures and quality seeds. For example,
China is the third largest producer of Citrus after Brazil and USA, having maximum
harvested area under Citrus (1.42 million ha) with production only 8.45 MT/ha as
compared to Citrus productivity 33. 33 MT / ha of USA from 0.441 million ha during
2001-2002 ( FAOSTAT, 2002). Like Irish potato famine, the citrus tristeza virus has
been highly destructive and this single pathogen could ravage citrus industry of many
countries like Argentina, Brazil etc. amounting to billions dollars. Budwood certifica-
tion programme developed to get rid of these viruses is very effective but still in coun-
tries where it has not been adopted fully are facing the problem of low productivity and
short productive life of Citrus plants. Thus, effective disease management plays a key
role in successful quality production of fruits and vegetables. In favourable environ-
ment conditions, the pathogen attack may reduce the productivity significantly and
may also become the cause of total crop failure.
There has been a drastic deviation in global weather pattern under El Nino ef-
fect. Black Sigatoka and weak to moderate El Nino weather pattern could affect banana
production. Rampant eruption of new races of banana pathogens and their rapid resis-
tant development to new fungicides has posed a threat to banana industry in Africa that
produces around 30 million tons of bananas yearly, which is mostly consumed locally.
But production is already being reduced and may very well cease entirely within ten
years, Scientists warn in a report published in British Weekly ‘New Scientist’ maga-
zine. Because existing banana plants are reproduced from cuttings, there is little ge-
netic diversity. Diseases, in particular fungus, rapidly can wipe out entire production
regions.
With the imposition of WTO conditions in export and import of fresh fruits and
vegetables, now it has become more relevant to produce disease free quality produce in
order to comply strict phytosanitary conditions laid by certain countries. Recent mo-
lecular advancement in our knowledge to detect and diagnose the pathogens in com-
modities even at very low level made it rather mandatory to produce exportable com-
modities free from the pathogens.
The new millennium promises excitement and hope for the future by new ad-
vancement in eco-friendly technologies in integrated disease management of fruits and
vegetables. During past twentieth century, Plant Pathology has witnessed a dramatic
advancement in management of fruits and vegetable diseases through in-depth investi-
gations of host-pathogen interactions, development of molecular diagnostic tools, inte-
gration of new concepts, principles and approaches.
My effort in bringing out this edited book is to update the achievements of
twentieth century in diagnosis and management of diseases of fruits and vegetables of
international trade and some under-exploited minor fruits which otherwise are widely
dispersed in various scientific journals and to develop future strategies for the new
millennium. The book includes latest diagnostic tools and management strategies of
viii
almost all the economically important temperate, tropical and subtropical fruits and
vegetables at one place which would be easier to refer by the students, research workers,
planners, administrators, policy makers and other end users like grower of fruits and
vegetables world-wide. The chapters on individual crop on various aspects of diseases
like geographical distribution of disease, diagnosis, disease forecast, approaches to
eliminate difficult sytemic pathogens, production of disease free planting material and
integrated disease management at nursery, orchard and post-harvest level are contributed
by leading Plant Pathologists having authority and significant contributions in respective
fields at international level.
The diseases of economic importance caused by fungi, bacteria, viruses and
virus like organisms, Phytoplasma and nematodes of each crop are covered, describing
their history, distribution, losses incurred, symptoms, latest diagnostic tools,
epidemiology and integrated applied management approaches including cultural,
chemical, genetic resources, use of bio-control agents being adopted world-wide. The
layout of each chapter includes a brief abstract, introduction and pathogen-wise
description of the diseases. Each chapter is vividly illustrated with photographs of typical
symptoms, graphs, tables and line drawings to make the subject more interesting and
easy to understand for students, Scientists, planners, administrators, growers and other
end users with latest pertinent references.
In volume I, diseases of Apple, Citrus, Grapes, Mango and Pineapple among
fruits and Carrot, Celery and Cucurbits among vegetable crops with special reference
to integrated diseases management practices have been included. Volume II covers
Avocado, Banana, Grapes, Guava, Papaya, Passion fruit, Strawberry, Stone fruits and
Minor tropical and subtropical fruits. Among vegetables, Lettuce, Pea, Pepper, Potato,
Onion and Garlic have been included in this volume besides role of mycorrhiza and
biocontrol agents in disease management. I am sure that these two volumes will be of
immense help and use to the fruits and vegetables growers world over, students, re-
search workers, planners, administrators, teachers and other end users engaged in diag-
nosis and management of fruits and vegetables diseases.
I am grateful and indebted to all the learned galaxy of contributors who have
spent their considerable time in contributing the chapters on various internationally
important fruits and vegetables crops. I thank them for their cooperation and support
during this project.
I dedicate this work to all those great Scientists who have spent their life time in
diagnosis and management of diseases of fruits and vegetables world over in order to
improve the quality and productivity of fruits and vegetables, to uplift the nutritional
status of human diet and fight against hunger. I am thankful to my wife Dr Nikhat
Sarwar Naqvi, for her constant encouragement and help in various ways while editing
the book.
25thSeptember, 2003 S.A.M.H. Naqvi
ix
List of Contributors
1. Arora, J.K. 6. Lee, Richard F.
Department of Plant Pathology University of Florida, CREC
Punjab Agricultural University 700 Experiment Station Road
Ludhiana – 141 004, INDIA Lake Alfred, FL 33850, USA
Phone: [phone] ext 295
2. Bhatia, Alka Fax: [phone]
University of Florida, IFAS, e-mail: [email protected]
Plant Pathology Department,
Citrus Research and Education Cen 7. McGrath, Margaret Tuttle
ter, 700 Experiment Station Road, Cornell University, Department of Plant
Lake Alfred, FL, USA, 33850 Pathology, Long Island Horticultural
Research and Extension Center, 3059
3. Da Graça, J.V. Sound Avenue, Riverhead, NY, USA
Texas A and M University, Phone: [phone];
Kingsville, Citrus Center, 312 N. FAX: [phone]
International Blvd., e-mail: [email protected]
Weslaco TX 78596, USA
Tel. [phone]. Mohan, C.
Fax [phone]; Department of Plant Pathology
email [email protected] Punjab Agricultural University
Ludhiana – 141 004, INDIA
4. Davis, R. Michael
Department of Plant Pathology, 9. Mondal, S.N.
University of California, University of Florida, IFAS,
Davis 95616, USA Plant Pathology Department,
Phone [phone], Citrus Research and Education
FAX [phone], Center, 700 Experiment Station Road,
email [email protected] Lake Alfred, FL, USA, 33850;
5. Korsten, L. 10.Muller, Gerd W.
Department of Microbiology and Centro de Citricultura Sylvio Moreira,
Plant Pathology, University of Instituto Agronômico,
Pretoria, Pretoria, 0002, 13490-970 Cordeirópolis, SP,
SOUTH AFRICA BRAZIL
Tel. [phone]; Phone [phone].
Fax [phone]; e-mail: [email protected]
email [email protected] [email protected]
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