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Directional Hearing William A. Yost and George Gourevitch Editors Directional Hearing With 133 Figures Springer-Verlag New York Berlin Heidelberg London Paris Tokyo William A. Yost Director Parmly Hearing Institute Loyola University of Chicago Chicago, Illinois 60626 USA Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Directional hearing. Includes bibliographies and index. I. Directional hearing. 2. Auditory perception. I. Yost, William A. II. Gourevitch, George. [DNLM: I. Audiology. 2. Auditory Perception. 3. Sound Localization. WV 270 D598) QP469.D57 1987 591.1 '825 87-4945 ISBN-13: 978-1-4612-9135-0 e-ISBN-13: 978-1-4612·4738-8 DOl: 10.1007/978-1-4612-4738-8 © 1987 by Springer-Verlag New York Inc. Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1987 All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written permission of the publisher (Springer-Verlag, 175 Fifth A venue, New York, New York 10010, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden. The use of general descriptive names, trade names, trademarks, etc. in this publication, even if the former are not especially identified, is not to be taken as a sign that such names, as understood by the Trade Marks and Merchandise Marks Act, may accordingly be used freely by anyone. Typeset by David E. Seham Associates, Metuchen, New Jersey. 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 I ISBN-13: 978-1-4612-9135-0 Springer-Verlag New York Berlin Heidelberg Preface All living creatures interact with their environments. For many animals, directional information on the contents of their surroundings is provided to a greater or lesser extent by the auditory system in conjunction with other sensory systems. The present volume, which evolved from "a con ference on directional hearing held in 1983 at the meetings of the Acoustical Society of America in Cincinnati, Ohio, introduces the reader to the current facts and theory on how vertebrates, from fish to man, locate sound sources in space. We invited some of the most creative scientists investigating directional hearing to acquaint the reader with their approaches to this subject. The diversity of topics they have covered characterizes the study of directional hearing and offers an overview not only of the problems confronting their field of inquiry, but also of the strategies that have been developed to resolve them. In their contributions to this volume, the authors describe the funda mental dimensions of directional hearing, that is, the stimuli that serve sound localization; the anatomical and functional characteristics of the auditory nervous system responsible for it; the various proficiencies achieved by different animals in this task; and, of great importance to man, the practical implications of sound localization. It is, therefore, not surprising to find variation in the style of the chapters from almost "how to-do-it" manuals to mostly theoretical discourse. It should be noted that more than half the chapters in this volume are based on human research. This is due, in part, to a historical element in the study of sound localization, namely, it has been examined for a much longer time and in much greater detail in man than in animals; conse quently, much of our knowledge of directional hearing rests on the study of humans. In part, it also reflects man's need for applied knowledge in this field to answer medical and environmental questions. A broader un derstanding of directional hearing-one that is derived not only from knowledge gained from human study, but also from knowledge of the comparative, neurophysiological, and evolutionary aspects of sound 10- vi Preface calization-must depend on a wide range of animal studies. This book is an attempt to introduce a broad informational base for directional hearing. The work on this book was made easier by the assistance of the staff of the Parmly Hearing Institute, especially the Institute's administrative assistant, Marilyn Larson. WAY GG Before this book was completed, George Gourevitch, my friend and coed itor, passed away. George died on May 19, 1987. George's scholarly input was crucial in producing this book and in planning the symposium. This book, Directional Hearing, is dedicated to George Abraham Gourevitch in recognition of his lifelong commitment to the scholarly study of hearing. WAY Contents Preface ................................................................... v Contributors ............................................................ IX Part I THE PHYSICAL AND PSYCHOACOUSTICAL FOUNDATIONS OF DIRECTIONAL HEARING ............................................... . I. Physical Acoustics and Measurements Pertaining to Directional Hearing .............................................. 3 George F. Kuhn 2. A New Approach to the Study of Human Sound Localization ..................................................... 26 Frederic L. Wightman, Doris J. Kistler, and Mark E. Perkins 3. Lateralization ................................................... 49 William A. Yost and Ervin R. Haiter 4. The Precedence Effect 85 P.M. Zurek Part II STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE MAMMALIAN BINAURAL NERVOUS SYSTEM ...................................... 107 5. Central Auditory Pathways in Directional Hearing 109 John H. Casseday and Ellen Covey 6. Physiological Studies of Directional Hearing 146 Shigeyuki Kuwada and Tom C.T. Yin viii Contents Part III DIRECTIONAL HEARING IN VERTEBRATES: ANIMAL PSYCHOPHYSICS AND SPECIAL ADAPTATIONS ..................... 177 7. Mechanisms for Directional Hearing among Nonmammalian Vertebrates ................................. 179 Richard R. Fay and Albert S. Feng 8. Directional Hearing and Sound Localization in Echolocating Animals ........................................ 214 James A. Simmons 9. Binaural Hearing in Land Mammals 226 George Gourevitch Part IV PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS OF DIRECTIONAL HEARING IN THE REAL WORLD ................................................ 247 10. Hearing in Rooms 249 David A. Berkley 11. Binaural Directional Hearing-Impairments and Aids 261 H. Steven Colburn. P. M. Zurek. and Nathaniel I. Durlach 12. Some Modern Techniques and Devices Used to Preserve and Enhance the Spatial Qualities of Sound ................ 279 Constantine Trahiotis and Leslie R. Bernstein Index of Names...................................................... 291 Subject Index ........................................................ 299 Contributors DAVID A. BERKLEY, Bell Labs, Murray Hill, New Jersey, USA LESLIE R. BERNSTEIN, Department of Psychology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA JOHN H. CASSEDAY, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA H. STEVEN COLBURN, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA ELLEN COVEY, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA NATHANIEL I. DURLACH, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA RICHARD R. FAY, Parmly Hearing Institute, Loyola University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA ALBERT S. FENG, Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, USA GEORGE GOUREVITCH, Hunter College of the City University of New York, New York, New York, USA ERVIN R. HAFTER, Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley, California, USA DORIS J. KISTLER, Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, USA x Contributors GEORGE F. KUHN, Vibrasound Research Corporation, Denver, Colorado, USA SHIGEYUKI KUWADA, Department of Anatomy, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut, USA MARK E. PERKINS, Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, New York, USA JAMES A. SIMMONS, Department of Psychology and Section of Neurobiology, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, USA CONSTANTINE TRAHIOTIS, Department of Speech and Hearing Science, University of Illinois, Champaign, Illinois, USA FREDERIC L. WIGHTMAN, Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, USA TOM C.T. YIN, Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, USA WILLIAM A. YOST, Parmly Hearing Institute, Loyola University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA P. M. ZUREK, Research Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA Part I The Physical and Psychoacoustical Foundations of Directional Hearing Our knowledge of directional hearing has depended not only on the study of the localization of sounds that originate in real space but also on the localization of sounds that are presented over earphones (lateralization). Even though the perception of sound is not identical under these two conditions, (in the first instance the source of the sound is perceived to be at some position in the environment, whereas in the second instance the source is typically perceived to be at some position inside the head), a wealth of information about directional hearing has,been provided by earphone studies. Since the latter part of the 19th century when Lord Rayleigh made his observations on how humans localize sound sources, it has been known that this ability is strongly dependent on interaural intensity and interaural time differences. Although the emphasis in this section is on the role of these cues in sound localization, other binaural cues are also discussed, some which have been examined only recently. Among them, for example, are spectral cues that arise when complex sounds encounter the body of the listener. Such spectral differences are crucial for the localization of sound in the vertical plane, for the localization of sound achieved with only one ear, and most probably, for a realistic reproduction of the acoustic environment. Greater understanding of directional hearing has resulted not only be cause of psychoacoustical studies, but also because of studies of the phys ical behavior of signals as they impinge on the listener. As a consequence of such work, some localization behavior can be accounted for on the basis ofthe physical transformation ofthe signal by the head, pinnae, and trunk of the listener. The four chapters of this section provide an overview of the fundamental acoustical and psychological phenomena of directional hearing and serve as reference for the more specialized topics of directional hearing discussed in the following sections.
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