development of drawing ability and the attitudes and practices towards children's drawings in ...

388 Pages·2014·3.82 MB·English

by  Sarah Rose

DEVELOPMENT OF DRAWING ABILITY AND THE ATTITUDES AND
PRACTICES TOWARDS CHILDREN’S DRAWINGS IN
STEINER AND NATIONAL CURRICULUM SCHOOLS

SARAH ELIZABETH ROSE

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement of Staffordshire University
for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

June 2014

-i-
CONTENTS
CONTENTS .................................................................................................................. ii
ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................v
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ........................................................................................... vii
LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................... xii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................1
1.1 History of the Study of Children’s Drawings .......................................................1
1.2 Benefits of Drawing ..............................................................................................8
1.3 History of School Drawing Education ................................................................15
1.4 Art in English National Curriculum Schools ......................................................18
1.5 Art in Steiner Waldorf Schools ...........................................................................21
1.6 Aims of the Thesis ..............................................................................................25
1.7 Summary .............................................................................................................27
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................28
2.1 Development of Drawing Ability........................................................................28
2.2 Drawing Ability of Steiner Waldorf and National Curriculum Pupils ...............31
2.3 Attitudes and Practices Relevant to Children’s Drawing ....................................37
2.3.1 Attitudes and Perceptions about Children’s Drawings ................................39
2.3.2 The Help and Support that Children Receive with Art/Drawing .................46
2.3.3 The Decline of Drawing Behaviour .............................................................53
2.4 School Art Culture ..............................................................................................57
2.6 Summary of the Evidence and Objectives of this Thesis ....................................59
2.6.1 Objectives of This Thesis .............................................................................61
CHAPTER 3: DRAWING STUDY ..............................................................................64
3.1 Introduction .........................................................................................................64
3.1.1 Aims and Objective of Drawing Study ........................................................65
3.1.2 Method .........................................................................................................71
3.2 The Development of Expressive Drawing ability in National Curriculum and
Steiner Schools ..........................................................................................................77
3.2.1 Scoring of Drawings ....................................................................................78
3.2.2 Results ..........................................................................................................80
3.2.3 Overall Summary of Findings for Expressive Drawings .............................90
3.3 The Development of Representational Drawing Ability in National Curriculum
and Steiner Schools ...................................................................................................90
3.3.1 Scoring of the drawings ...............................................................................91
3.3.2 Results ..........................................................................................................95
-ii-
3.3.3 Summary of Findings for Representational Drawings .................................99
3.4 The Development of Drawing Ability and Style in Free Drawings made by
National Curriculum and Steiner school pupils ........................................................99
3.4.1 Scoring of the Drawings ............................................................................100
3.4.2 Results ........................................................................................................102
3.4.3 Summary of Findings from the Free Drawings..........................................108
3.5 Discussion of Drawing Ability in Expressive, Representational and Free
Drawings made by National Curriculum and Steiner School Pupils ......................109
3.5.1 Summary of Findings .................................................................................109
3.5.2 Discussion of the Findings .........................................................................110
3.6 Summary of Drawing Study..............................................................................121
CHAPTER 4: CHILDREN’S CREATIVE INTENTIONS: WHERE DO THE IDEAS
FOR THE DRAWING COME FROM? .....................................................................122
4.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................................123
4.2 Method ..............................................................................................................133
4.2.1 Participants .................................................................................................133
4.2.2 Procedure....................................................................................................135
5.2.3 Analytic Approach .....................................................................................136
4.3 Analysis .............................................................................................................139
4.3.1 Direct Observation .....................................................................................140
4.3.2 Memory ......................................................................................................142
4.3.3 Imagination ................................................................................................146
4.3.4 Expression ..................................................................................................148
4.3.5 Initial Uncertainty ......................................................................................150
4.3.6 Desire to Draw Something ‘Not too Hard’ ................................................151
4.4 Discussion .........................................................................................................152
4.5 Summary ...........................................................................................................159
CHAPTER 5: SURVEY STUDY ...............................................................................161
5.1 Introduction to the Survey Study ......................................................................161
5.1.2 Method .......................................................................................................167
5.2 Children’s Drawing Attitudes and Practices .....................................................177
5.2.1 Time Spent Drawing ..................................................................................177
5.2.2 What Motivates Children to Draw? ...........................................................186
5.2.3 Benefits of Drawing ...................................................................................192
5.2.4 Enjoyment of Drawing ...............................................................................198
5.2.5 Drawing Self-Efficacy ...............................................................................210
5.2.6 Preferred Subject Mater .............................................................................212
5.3 The Support and Help that Children Experience while Drawing .....................215
5.3.1 Help from Teachers ....................................................................................216
-iii-
5.3.2 Help from Parents ......................................................................................221
5.3.3 Help from Other children ...........................................................................228
5.3.5 Help from Others........................................................................................230
5.3.6 Help that Children Would Like ..................................................................232
5.3.7 Art Values ..................................................................................................234
5.3.8 Conclusions about the Support and Help that Children Experience While
Drawing ...............................................................................................................240
5.4 An Age Related Decline of the amount of Time Spent Drawing: ....................240
Perceptions and Attitudes ........................................................................................240
5.4.1 Is a Decline Perceived to Exist? .................................................................241
5.5.2 Reasons for Decline ...................................................................................253
5.5.3 Does the Decline Matter? ...........................................................................259
5.5.4 What to do About the Decline? ..................................................................266
5.5.5 Conclusions about an Age Related Decline of the Amount of Time Spent
Drawing ...............................................................................................................269
5.5 General Discussion of the Survey Data ............................................................271
5.5.1 Comparison of Findings with Predictions Made ........................................271
5.5.2 Overall Discussion of Findings ..................................................................277
5.5.3 Future Research and Implications ..............................................................281
5.6 Overall Conclusion............................................................................................283
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION ....................................................................................284
6.1 Have the Aims and Objectives been met? ........................................................284
6.2 Contribution to Knowledge ...............................................................................286
6.3 Evaluation of Evidence .....................................................................................293
6.4 Conclusion ........................................................................................................296
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................299
Appendix 1: Guidelines for Raters ..............................................................................318
Appendix 2: Example Happy, Angry and Sad Drawings ...........................................324
Appendix 3: Example Mannequin Drawings ..............................................................327
Appendix 4: Example House Drawings ......................................................................328
Appendix 4: Example Free Drawings .........................................................................329
Appendix 5: Interview Schedules ...............................................................................330
Appendix 6: Theme Descriptors .................................................................................344

-iv-
ABSTRACT
Among educationalists there is some uncertainty about how best to teach
children drawing skills and among psychologists there is uncertainty about how
different approaches might influence children’s drawing development. In the National
Curriculum children are taught both expressive and representational drawing ability,
but there is concern that the arts are being ‘squeezed out’ in favour of more ‘academic’
subjects. In contrast, children in Steiner schools experience less directive instruction in
drawing, but experience an education where the arts and creativity are highly valued.
However, little is known about the home drawing experiences of these pupils and the
views of their teachers. This thesis aimed to identify similarities and differences in the
drawing abilities and styles of pupils and the drawing attitudes and practices of the
pupils, their parents and teachers.
In study one expressive, representational and free drawings of 180 pupils (age
6 to 16 years old) were assessed for ability, style and creative intention. In study two
180 pupils, their teachers and parents were surveyed about attitudes and practices
relevant to children’s drawing experiences.
Steiner pupils were found to have superior representational drawing ability but
no consistent between-school differences were found in expressive drawing ability.
Stylistic difference were evident in the free drawing. Drawing attitudes and practices
of children were generally positive and few between-school differences identified.
Parents and teachers associated with the Steiner schools tended to value drawing more
highly, were more aware of the wider benefits of children engaging in art. However,
National Curriculum teachers and parents tended to be more involved with children’s
drawing experiences.
-v-
The studies presented in this thesis represent ground breaking research
comparing drawing ability, and the art attitudes and practices that shape children's
artistic experience in their respective Steiner and National Curriculum schools as well
as their homes. More similarities were identified than anticipated. This suggests that
school and home drawing environments may be less influential than previously
thought. Alternatively, there might be fewer differences between the school types than
the curricula suggest. Consequently, future research should consider the artistry of
teachers and parents and observational data of classroom art lessons and home
drawing experiences.

-vi-
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am grateful to all the teachers, pupils and parents who took time to provide
the data presented in this thesis. I wish to thank colleagues with whom I collaborated
while working as a Research Associate prior to commencing my PhD. In particular I
am grateful to Richard Jolley and Esther Burkitt with whom I developed and piloted
the questionnaires and interviews which I used to collect data for Chapter 5.
Furthermore I was able to re- analysed a small amount of the data that I collected
while working with Richard and Esther.
The support of the Institute for Education Policy Research is gratefully
acknowledged as they provided financial support to enable two-artist raters to code the
drawings for representational and expressive drawing ability. Thanks to Adrian Rose
who carried out inter rater reliability on the less subjective stylistic assessments of the
free drawings. Jenny Hallam requires special thanks as she very kindly carried out the
inter rater reliability coding necessary for the survey study and also reviewed the
themes identified from the children’s narratives about their free drawings.
The reassurance, feedback and encouragement from Richard Jolley have been
key to my successful completion of this thesis. He has been sympathetic to the
struggles that I have experienced over the last seven years trying to juggle my studies,
work and home life but he has never let me lose sight of the end goal. For that I will
always be grateful. Finally, I would like to further acknowledge my husband, Adrian
Rose, who not only helped with the inter rater reliability but also put up with me while
I was trying to be super-woman and do everything! Thank you for missing out on
holidays, being my sounding board, believing in me and making sure the list of Tables
and Figures was accurately compiled!

-vii-
LIST OF TABLES
3.1 Means (year: month) and standard deviations of participants’ ages by page 73
year group and school type
3.2 Intraclass correlation coefficients and confidence intervals for inter rater 81
reliability of expressive formal properties and quality of expression for
happy, sad and angry drawings.
3.3 Mean and standard deviations (in italics) for the expressive use of line by 83
mood, school type and age group.
3.4 Mean and standard deviations (in italics) for the expressive use of colour 85
by mood, school type and age group.
3.5 Mean and standard deviations (in italics) for the expressive use of 87
composition by mood, school type and age group.
3.6 Mean and standard deviations (in italics) for the overall quality of 89
expression scores by mood, school type and age group.
3.7 Rating guidelines for house drawings, based on Barrouillet et al. (1994). 93
3.8 Rating guidelines for mannequin drawings, based on Cox et al. (2000) 95
and Rose, Jolley & Charmin (2012).
3.9 Mean and standard deviations (in italics) for mannequin and house 96
drawings by school type and age group.
3.10 Frequency of individual colour use and mean and standard deviation of 106
total number of colours used by school type and age group.
3.11 Frequency table showing the use of colour combination among pupils 107
from the two school types.
3.12 Mean and standard deviation of the size of free drawings (in millimetres) 108
by school type and age group.
3.13 Mean and standard deviation for the scene rating by school type and age 109
group.
4.1 Means (year: month), standard deviations and gender of participants’ 135
ages by year group and school type
4.2 Descriptions of processes involved in the six phases of thematic analysis. 138
5.1 Means (year: month) and standard deviations of participants’ ages by age 170
group and school type.

-viii-
5.2 The number of questionnaires returned from parents of children of each 172
age group from each school types.
5.3 Percentage of total number of Kappa statistics indicating ‘substantial’ 178
and ‘almost perfect’ agreement for each survey.
5.4 Comparisons between school types (National Curriculum (NC) and 181
Steiner) for the amount of time that pupils reported spending drawing at
school in an average week.
5.5 Comparisons between school types (National Curriculum (NC) and 182
Steiner) for the amount of time that pupils reported spending drawing at
home in an average week.
5.6 Children’s reports of whether anyone at home suggested drawing as an 188
activity for the child to do.
5.7 Children’s responses to the question ‘why do you think that [person who 188
the child had indicated in the previous response] suggests drawing as an
activity for you to do?’
5.8 Children’s responses to the question ‘what makes you decide to draw?’ 191
5.9 Children’s responses to the question ‘what are the benefits of drawing (or 195
for the younger children, ‘what good things come from making a drawing
or ‘what might drawing help you with’)?’
5.10 Parents’ responses to the question ‘what are the benefits of drawing? 197
5.11 Children’s responses to the question ‘why do you like drawing?’ 202
5.12 Parents’ comments for why they perceive that their children like 205
drawing.
5.13 Children’s responses to the question ‘is there anything that you don’t like 207
or find difficult about drawing’
5.14 Parent’s reported perceptions of what their children dislike or find 209
difficult about drawing.
5.15 Children’s reports of subject matter they most frequently chose to 214
represent.
5.16 Children’s responses to the question ‘I want you to think about the help 218
your teachers have given you in your drawings. What sort of help have
they given you?’

-ix-
5.17 Children’s responses to the question ‘I want you to think about the help 223
your parents have given you in your drawings. What sort of help have
they given you?’
5.18 Parent’s responses to ‘In what specific ways do you help your child with 224
his or her drawing?’
5.19 Children’s responses to the question ‘I want you to think about the help 230
that other children have given you in your drawings. What sort of help
have they given you?’
5.20 Children’s responses to the question ‘Has anyone else helped you with 232
your drawing?’
5.21 Children’s responses to the question ‘What help have they given you?’ 233
5.22 Children’s responses to the question ‘what extra help would you like 234
with your drawings (now or in the past)?’
5.23 Children’s responses to the question ‘what do you imagine that most 237
adults think makes a drawing good’.
5.24 Children’s responses to the question ‘what do you imagine that most 238
adults think makes a drawing bad’.
5.25 Parent’s responses to the question ‘What makes a child’s drawing 239
good?’.
5.26 Parent’s responses to the question ‘What makes a child’s drawing bad?’. 240
5.27 Children’s explanations for why they believe that they will spend less 244
time drawing in adulthood.
5.28 Children’s explanations for why they believe that they will spend the 244
same amount of time drawing in adulthood.
5.29 Children’s explanations for why they believe that they will spend more 245
time drawing in adulthood.
5.30 Children’s responses to the question ‘Many children draw less or even 255
stop drawing altogether when they get older. Why do you think this is?’
5.31 Parents’ responses to the question ‘Please list reasons why you think that 256
drawing activity may decline as children get older?’
5.32 Children’s explanations for why an age related decline in drawing does 262
matter
5.33 Children’s reasons for why they responded that it depended when asked 263
‘Do you think that it matters that children draw less as they get older?’
-x-