The historical dictionaries present essential information on a broad range of subjects, includingAmericanandworld history,art, business,cities,countries, cultures, customs, film, global conflicts, international relations, literature, music, philosophy, religion, sports,andtheater.Writtenbyexperts,allcontainhighlyinformativeintroductoryessays of the topic and detailed chronologies that, in some cases, cover vast historical time periodsbutstillmanagetoheavilyfeaturemorerecentevents. BriefA–Zentriesdescribethemainpeople,events,politics,socialissues,institutions,and policiesthatmakethetopicunique,andentriesarecross-referencedforeaseofbrowsing. Extensivebibliographiesaredividedinto severalgeneralsubjectareas, providingexcel- lentaccesspointsforstudents,researchers,andanyonewantingtoknowmore.Addition- ally,maps,photographs,andappendixesofsupplementalinformationaidhighschooland collegestudentsdoingtermpapersorintroductoryresearchprojects.Inshort,thehistori- caldictionariesaretheperfectstartingpointforanyonelookingtoresearchinthesefields. HISTORICALDICTIONARIESOFASIA,OCEANIA,AND THEMIDDLEEAST JonWoronoff,SeriesEditor GuamandMicronesia,byWilliamWuerchandDirkBallendorf.1994. Palestine,byNafezY.NazzalandLailaA.Nazzal.1997. Lebanon,byAs’adAbuKhalil.1998. Azerbaijan,byTadeuszSwietochowskiandBrianC.Collins.1999. PapuaNewGuinea,SecondEdition,byAnnTurner.2001. Cambodia,byJustinCorfieldandLauraSummers.2003. Kyrgyzstan,byRafisAbazov.2004. Turkmenistan,byRafisAbazov.2005. Vietnam,ThirdEdition,byBruceLockhartandWilliamJ.Duiker.2006. India,SecondEdition,bySurjitMansingh.2006. HongKongSARandtheMacaoSAR,byMingK.ChanandShiu-hingLo.2006. Pakistan,ThirdEdition,byShahidJavedBurki.2006. Iran,SecondEdition,byJohnH.Lorentz.2007. GulfArabStates,SecondEdition,byMalcolmC.Peck.2008. Laos,ThirdEdition,byMartinStuart-Fox.2008. BruneiDarussalam,SecondEdition,byJatswanS.Sidhu.2010. Mongolia,ThirdEdition,byAlanJ.K.Sanders.2010. Bangladesh,FourthEdition,bySyedurRahman.2010. Polynesia,ThirdEdition,byRobertD.Craig.2011. Singapore,NewEdition,byJustinCorfield.2011. EastTimor,byGeoffreyC.Gunn.2011. PostwarJapan,byWilliamD.Hoover.2011. Afghanistan,FourthEdition,byLudwigW.Adamec.2012. Philippines,ThirdEdition,byArtemioR.Guillermo.2012. Tibet,byJohnPowersandDavidTempleman.2012. Kazakhstan,byDidarKassymova,ZhanatKundakbayeva,andUstinaMarkus.2012. Thailand, Third Edition, by Gerald W. Fry, Gayla S. Nieminen, and Harold E. Smith. 2013. Syria,ThirdEdition,byDavidComminsandDavidW.Lesch.2014. ScienceandTechnologyinModernChina,byLawrenceR.Sullivanand NancyY. Liu. 2014. Taiwan(RepublicofChina),FourthEdition,byJohnF.Copper.2014. Australia,FourthEdition,byNormanAbjorensenandJamesC.Docherty.2015. Indonesia,ThirdEdition,byAudreyKahin.2015. Fiji,byBrijV.Lal.2016. People’sRepublicofChina,ThirdEdition,byLawrenceR.Sullivan.2016. Israel,ThirdEdition,byBernardReichandDavidH.Goldberg.2016. NewZealand,ThirdEdition,byJanineHaywardandRichardShaw.2016. Nepal,SecondEdition,byNandaR.ShresthaandKeshavBhattarai.2017. Burma(Myanmar),SecondEdition,byDonaldM.Seekins.2017. Yemen,ThirdEdition,byCharlesSchmitzandRobertD.Burrowes.2017. ChineseEconomy,byLawrenceR.Sullivan.2018. Malaysia,SecondEdition,byOoiKeatGin.2018. Tajikistan,ThirdEdition,byKamoludinAbdullaev.2018. PostwarJapan,SecondEdition,byWilliamD.Hoover.2019. Iraq,ThirdEdition,byBethK.Dougherty.2019. DemocraticPeople’sRepublicofKorea,SecondEdition,byJamesE.Hoare.2019. ChineseEnvironment,byLawrenceR.SullivanandNancyLiu-Sullivan.2019. SaudiArabia,ThirdEdition,byJ.E.Peterson.2019. RepublicofKorea,FourthEdition,byJamesE.Hoare.2020. ChineseCulture,byLawrenceR.SullivanandNancyLiu-Sullivan.2021. Historical Dictionary of Chinese Culture Lawrence R. Sullivan Nancy Liu-Sullivan ROWMAN&LITTLEFIELD Lanham•Boulder•NewYork• London PublishedbyRowman&Littlefield AnimprintofTheRowman&LittlefieldPublishingGroup,Inc. 4501ForbesBoulevard,Suite200,Lanham,Maryland20706 www.rowman.com 6TinworthStreet,LondonSE115AL Copyright©2021byLawrenceR.SullivanandNancyLiu-Sullivan Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthisbookmaybereproducedinanyformorbyany electronicormechanicalmeans,includinginformationstorageandretrievalsystems, withoutwrittenpermissionfromthepublisher,exceptbyareviewerwhomayquote passagesinareview. BritishLibraryCataloguinginPublicationInformationAvailable LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2020944196 ThepaperusedinthispublicationmeetstheminimumrequirementsofAmerican NationalStandardforInformationSciencesPermanenceofPaperforPrintedLibrary Materials,ANSI/NISOZ39.48-1992. ThisbookisdedicatedtothelateSeymourToppingandAudreyRonning ToppingandtothelateProfessorEzraVogel,HarvardUniversity,each connoisseursofChina’srichculturalheritage.