Britannica Book of the Year 1996

931 Pages·209.611 MB·English

by  Encyclopaedia Britannica

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FOREWORD
On
behalfofthe staffofEncyclopasdia Britannica, I am happy to present the
^ 1996 edition of the Britannica Book of the Year. This covers a year
^
^ in which a great deal happened not only in the United States and in
H the rest of the English-speaking world but everywhere on the globe.
V The conclusion ofthe O.J. Simpson trial lessened but did not end the
W fascination it had for the American people. Not only did it lay bare
the now-undeniable gulfbetween black and white Americans and raise
troubling questions about the country's police forces, but it had its
resonance overseas aswell.
In the U.S. the Republican Party took control of both houses of Congress for the first time
in 40 years and began an attack on the past 60 years ofAmerican domestic politics. It remained
to be seen, ofcourse, whether the Republicans could consolidate their self-proclaimed revolution
or would simply remind voters, in the words of one wag, of the reasons they kept them out for
so long. The Republican speaker of the House of Representatives, Newt Gingrich, had become
so unpopular by the end of the year that he was taking a determinedly low profile in the fierce
struggles over the budget.
One of the centrepieces of the Republican agenda was the "Contract with America," and we
thought it might be interesting to examine it from the standpoint of contract law. Attorney and
author Nina Massen agreed to write a special report for us that discusses the fate ofthe contract,
generally over the first 100 days of the new Congress. As the year ended, only three of the
Contract'sprovisions had become law, and two major items—term limits for membersofCongress
—
and aconstitutional amendment mandating abalancedbudget had been defeated.
In this year we perhaps could begin to see the outline ofthe new world that was replacing the
worldofthe ColdWar. In aspecial reporton the 1946BritannicaBookofthe Year, we use excerpts
fromthatvolumetoseefrom theirvantagepoint somethingsthatthe peopleof 1945 thoughtwere
important forthe present and the future. More than that, we get a sense ofhow things seemed to
those on thebrink ofa new age.
We too are on such a brink, and John Kenneth Galbraith gives us in his Commentary some
thoughts on the newworld. We trust these ideaswill be as interesting in 50years as they are now.
Like those of1945, the peopleof2045 are in ourthoughts, andperhapsyourworld too ischanging
radically. We hope that asyou read this,you arewell.
Of the things that happened this past year, we commissioned special reports on those that
seemedmostcompelling, in additiontothe "ContractwithAmerica"mentionedabove. Weexplore
theconceptofcyberspace, examinetheuseoffinancial derivatives, reviewpostmodernism in Latin-
American literature, and look at the worldwide crisis in child care. In this year of the collapse of
the venerable Barings PLC and the many troubles ofJapan's Daiwa Bank Ltd., we have added a
new regular report on U.S. and international banking.
This 1996 edition of the Britannica Book of the Year also contains coverage of individual
topics, known in the publishing trade as sidebars. We examine the past year's developments and
controversies on the plundering ofart, ubiquitous infomercials, POGs, El Nifio, the emergence of
new viruses and the strange behaviour of familiar ones, the Smithsonian Institution and charges
of historical revisionism. Ebony magazine after 50 years of publication, John Peters Humphrey,
the new professionalism in sports, senior golf, the situation in sub-Saharan Africa, the UN Fourth
World Conference on Women, and theparticipation ofVietnam in theglobal economy.
We also turn our spotlight on the Berbers of North Africa, the multilateral conflict over the
Spratly Islands, the recent French elections, secularism in South Asia, the crises in Mexico, com-
munism's legacy of pollution in Eastern Europe, and the move by Native Americans to retain or
regain theircultural legacies.
The Sports and Games section has been rearranged to include the Sporting Record tables from
theMicropoedia, whichwe update eachyear and which had heretofore been included in a separate
section. For the first time, then, all sports reports and their appropriate tables will be available in
the same place. We added new tables for Australian rules football, Latin-American baseball, and
sumowrestling, and we are covering once more events oftheyear in archery, curling, and fencing.
This is my debut volume as editor of the Britannica Book ofthe Year, and I would like to use
the editor's privilege to thank all of those at Britannica who have done such a splendid job of
producing it. You now hold in your hands the best 1996 Britannica Book ofthe Year we could
provide. I trustyouwill enjoyand profitby it.
Glenn M. Edwards, Editor
—
r\'TS
COMMFMMn 263 PerformingArts
6 TheOutlinesof 279 Population and
an EmergingWorld Human Relations
byJohn Kenneth Galbraith 285 John PetersHumphrey
byKarenJ. Sparks
IHE VEAK IN Kl \il.\\ 286 SPECIALreport:
11 Chronicleof1995 ChildWelfare Crisis
byDavidTobis
45 Disasters
289 Religion
FtOPLI. OK IW5 299 SportsandGames
299 TheNewProfessionals
49 NobelPrizes byAndrewLongmore
52 Biographies
326 SeniorGolf
73 Obituaries
byJeffWallenfeldt
348 Transportation
FA'ENTS or 1'^' 351 WorldAffairs
103 Agriculture and Food Supplies 352 FourthWorldConference
112 AnthropologyandArchaeology on Women
117 Architecture and byRichardN. Swift
Civil Engineering 368 spotlight:The Berbers
124 Art,Antiques,an.d Collections ofNorthAfrica
126 PlunderingArt byHamouAmirouche
byJohnH. Mathews 392 spotlight:TheSpat
132 Businessand IndustryReview overtheSpratlys
133 Infomercials byRicardoSaludo
byAmandaE. Fuller 404 FranceElectsa President
143 POGPower byAnne-ElisabethMoutet
bySaraN. Brant 417 spotlight: Secularism
157 Computersand in SouthAsia
Information Systems byAkeelBilgrami
158 SPECIALreport: Cyberspace 443 spotlight:Accelerating
byRobertEverett-Green Changesin Mexico
160 Earth andSpace Sciences bySergioSarmiento
164 What's HappeningtoEl Nino? 460 spotlight: Pollution in
byKevinE. Trenberth Eastern Europe
171 EconomicAffairs byNorman Myers
185 SPECIAL report:TheConcern 492 specialreport:
overDerivatives The"Contract"withAmerica
byPatricia Tehan byNina Massen
191 Education 494 spotlight: NativeAmerican
195 Environment Cultural Ferment
197 Brent Spar byRonMcCoy
byMichaelAllahy 502 Vietnam Reemerges
203 Fashions byJamesHennelly
205 Health and Disease 505 spotlight: Sub-Saharan
207 New, Resurgent,and Africain a NewEra
SurprisingViruses byColinLegum
byBernardDixon
210 LLaaww,ECnrfiomrec,eamnednt 5H0K7ILMW^NoUrANeIwI'RDeAvIiis:ionsfromthe
217 Librariesand Museums
Encyclopaedia Britannica
218 The Smithsonian
507 Balkan States: Bosniaand
byBartonJ. Bernstein Herzegovina: History
219 LifeSciences
510 Italy: History: Italy
226 Literature
Since 1870(in part)
234 SPECIALreport:
517 Russia: Cultural Life
Postmodern Literature 521 Tokyo-Yokohama
in Latin America Metropolitan Area
byRaymondLeslie Williams
527 Bibliography: Recent Books
239 Mathematicsand
Physical Science
244 Mediaand Publishing 532 BookoftheYear
250 Ebonyat50 Contributors
byAnthonyL. Green
252 MilitaryAffairs 537 \\f)Ki I) i)\r\
256 SPKciAL report: 1945
A Watershed Year 897
ThemusicaldramaBrokenBirdspremieres,page264
COMMENTARY
The Outlines of an
Emerging World
^^^ ^^^
byJohnKennethGalbraith
—
Looking back on 1995, I am led to
reflect, first of all, on the larger
currentsofhistory that have a con-
trollinginfluence in these times, in-
cluding the yearjust past. The first
of these is the continuing effect of
the release from the international
tension that after World War II, a
full half century ago, came to be
called the Cold War. This, in turn,
hasgiventimeforattentiontothemyriadoflesserconflicts,
foreign and domestic, that afflict the modern world. Once
these would have been assigned a lesser, even minor role
except astheymight bearon the largerconfrontation. They
have nowcome tobulk large in thought and expression.
Two world focal points in 1995 were former Yugoslavia
and the impoverished peoples of Africa. There was also
the continuing tension in the former republics ofthe Soviet
Union, most notably in Chechnya, and, in lesser measure,
in Mexico and Haiti. One is led, first ofall, to consider the
causesofconflict.
Themostobviousofthese isthecontinuingrighteousand
angryassertionofethnic, religious,racial,andnationaliden-
tity. Even in therichcountries—inWestern Europe and the
United States, on the PacificRim, and notably in Canada
theseconflictsexist. Race, howeverdeniedbymanycitizens,
is still a source of continuing and bitter dissension in the
United States, onwhich Iwill have alaterword. In Canada
there is continuing debate and action involving Quebec
separatism and the French language,whichwas temporarily
decided in 1995 but remains wholly unresolved. In Western
Europethere is assertionofnational identityand difl'erence
and, in particular, an adverse reaction to the large numbers
of foreign workers who staff the industrial establishments
and otherwise do the work to which native-born sons and
daughters are no longer inclined or for which they are
unavailable.
The singular aspect ofthis tension and conflict is that in
the fortunate countries it is contained. Relative well-being,
onecannot doubt, isamajorsolventofsocial tension. Well-
off'peoplebecome angry, butnot totheextentofjeopardiz-
ing their comfort. So it is between the rich countries, and
so within them. In the United States it is taken for granted
John Kenneth Galbrakh is well known not only as one of the
majoreconomists ofthe 20th centurybut also as an energetic cru-
saderfor liberal causes. Currently the Paul M. Warburgprofessor
ofeconomics, emeritus, at Harvard University, he also has held a
numberofU.S.governmentalpositionsrangingfromdepartmentad-
ministratorin the OfficeofPriceAdministration during World War
II to adviser to Pres. John F. Kennedy and ambassador to India.
ProfessorGalbraithconsequentlyhasbeenabletoadvancethestudy
ofeconomics, explain thefieldto those whoarenotspecialists, and
implementpoliciesbasedonhisextensiveknowledge.Heisaprolific
author whose books include American Capitalism (1952), Almost
Everyone's Guide to Economics (1978), andA Short History of
FinancialEuphoria(1993).
SEBASTIAOSALGADO
thatthebettersectionsofthecitiesandthe affluentsuburbs Although in and between the fortunate countries there
will be peaceful and benign. Disorder and crime are the waspeace,therewerealsodefiningcrisesleadingtopolitical
bitter legacy of the impoverished, usually relegated to the tensions. In the United States there were two such crises:
central cities. there was a major renewal and deepening of the issue of
I would like to offer here a general guide to the larger race, and there was a strong reaction against the seemingly
world polity of 1995. The rich and the modestly affluent solid benefits and services of the welfare state. Each calls
nationswere at peace, not onlyinternallybut alsowith each for acomment.
other. There was still tension in the Middle East, culminat- The prime focus of the question of race in the United
ing as the year came to a close in the cruel and senseless States in 1995 was the televised O.J. Simpson trial, con-
murder of Yitzhak Rabin. This was a deep, unforgivable tinuing from the previous year and ending with his excep-
tragedytowhich the leadersandpeoplesofthewholeworld tionally prompt acquittal. This raised the question whether
responded, not because Rabin was a leader in war but be- the criminal justice system could be overridden by racial
cause he was a force forpeace. It was in the relativelypoor consciousness and commitment, especially when intensified
countries of the Balkans, in the poverty-ridden countries by the incompetent and deeplyprejudicial behaviour ofthe
of Africa, in the poorest state of Mexico, and among the police.
Kurds in Turkey and Iraq that deprivation, fighting, and The other factor bringing race onto the national scene
death were commonplace. was, insubstantial andevenencouragingmeasure, thesocial
RBawlaknadnasnanrdefuingepeasr,tsdroifvAefnritcoaainca19m9p5itnhanteitghhebwoourrlidngsaZawirtehebymovsitciovuioslefnitghtcoinnfglibcettswaereinsinHgutouutaonfdeTtuhtnsiic,apnrdepraerleigtiooursetduirfnfetroentcheesi.rhomes.Itwasinthe
RADHIKACMAIASANI GAMMALIAISON
The greatly publicized case, of course, was former Yu- and economic gains of the African-American community.
goslavia. Here the ethnic, reli—gious, and territorial com- Once, and indeed until relatively recent times, blacks lived
mitments were especially deep some of many centuries' insilent anonymity in the rural South or in enclaves in New
standing. These people sacrificed a modest well-being for York City, Chicago, Detroit, Mich., and other large cities.
the deprivation ofmanyorall. This, and the efforts tobring Therewaspeacebecausetheywerenotseen. Inrecenttimes
peace there, dominated the headlines of the year. There and strongly manifest in 1995 was the emerging economic,
were times when one read or heard the news from the political, and social strength of the black community. In
Balkans and all but wished for the stable relationships of consequence of this, where there was once indifference in
the Cold War. thewhitecommunity, therewasnowasenseofcompetition,
yeaBru.tThthaet BwaalskainnsAwferircea,noitn,Riwnafnadcta,,thBeurwuonrdsit,caansde onefigthh-e easveennheacnocnionmgicthifseacr.omApfeftiirtmiaotni—veaascttiaokninpgreomgprlamosymweenrtefsreoemn
bouringZaire,with theresidualeffectsofconflict in Somalia white job seekers. This was not an issue when blacks were
and Liberia. There starvation, so far from being an episodic sharecroppers or menials in the big cities. So, while defi-
affliction, was the norm. Out of poverty came the forces nitely not recognized as such, the black and white tension
of disorder and conflict that ensured further poverty—and evident in 1995 was a mark ofsocial and civilized progress.
death. Here, more than anywhere else in theworld, wasthe The deeper improvement in race relations had its more
dark side of 1995. superficial price.
—
When Americans were not watching the Simpson trial in tably Russia. Here it was still being discovered that the
Los Angeles or the "Million Man March" on Washington, transition to a market system was far more difficult, far
D.C.,theywerethesilent,approving,orconc—ernedaudience more cruel, than once imagined. A poor economic sys-
for the great political revolt in Washington the attack on tem, defective especially in its meeting of the varied and
government as a social instrument, more generally on the changing needs of consumers, was replaced in some mea-
welfarestate.And,asever,Americanssawthemanifestation sure by no system at all. Instead, there were idle factories,
ofextremist popular attitudes, one appalling example being badly disorganized agriculture and food supply, continuing
thebombingofthefederalofficebuildingin Okl—ahomaCity, if less severe inflation, and a new entrepreneurial class
Okla. In othercountriesofthe industrialworld in Canada deeply and profitably committed to forthright crime and
and France and in so—me measure in Germany, Spain, Italy, corruption.
and The Netherlands the welfare state was also, at least The economic disorder in Russia and its political con-
marginally, under siege. The United States was, as usual, sequences cast the blackest shadows on the world scene.
theextremecase.AnewCongress, ledbyyoung Republican When World War II ended, the winning nations, led by the
radicals, came to power in Washington in January 1995. United States, united in a major effort at repair and re-
Ther—e was no reticence as to their aim. Welfare legisla- construction. It was wonderfully successful for both victors
tion health care, regulatory restraints, —varied government and vanquished. Alas, the end of the Cold War brought
services, and, above all, aid to the poor was to be rolled no such effort, invoked no such generosity, no such intelli-
back. The word capitalism being no longer politically quite gence. In international affairs increasing intelligence cannot
correct, the market system, in the preferred reference, was be assumed.
to be accorded itspristine freedom and power. Within the fortunate countries in 1995, two economic
The problem was not that simple. Much welfare legisla- factors were a lasting reason for concern. One was the
tion, it was being discovered, was the continuing high and enduring level of
offspring of history, not of politics or unemployment in the United States
ideology. Once the poor in the United and Canada and, notably, in Europe.
States, as observed earlier, were invisi- In This has two causes, neither as yet
ble as long as they stayed on the share- the modem economy fullyrecognizedandappreciated.There
cropper plantations of the South or is, first, the fact that in the modern
deep in the valleys of the Appalachian and polity inflation is economy and polity inflation is more
Pciltaiteesaua.ndIt waawsaythefirrommovtheemirenptritmoittihvee more feared than fseeravreedartmhaynoufntehmepluonyemmepnlto,yeda,ndtoaursee-
sources of support that made welfare, unemployment, and a an old Marxian phrase, is now seen
education, crime, lawenforcement, and as a protection against price increases.
much else public issues and the basis reserve army ofthe Second, the modern welfare state has
for public action. Once, a predomi- unemployed, to use an within its structure factors that are ad-
nantly farm population had little need verse to worker employment. Each of
for Social Security and unemployment old Marxian phrase, is these matters needs to be examined.
gceonmepreantsiaotniotno.okOcnarethoeftfhaeromnethbeefnoreex.t now seen as a a Tvehreymloadrgeernnuemcboenromoyfapnedopploleitlyivhiansg
Times could be bad, and often were, protection against price on fixed or more or less stable incomes
but there was no unemployment on a and also a big minoritywho have bank
farm. Health care, until relatively re- increases. savingsorotherfixed-incomeassets.To
centtimes,waswonderfully inexpensive these, inflation, even a mild increase in
because the local doctor had very little prices, is a most unwelcome expropri-
tosell. Itwastheenormousadvancesin ation. Thus the fear of inflation as it
medicine and surgery that made health care an issue. The affects a large and articulate community. And thus the
costs of keeping people alive could now range from con- acceptance of unemployment, which is now seen as a
siderable to huge, and a civilized society, or one with such necessary stabilizing force against the wage increases that
claim, could not allow people to be sick and die merely might, in turn, drive up prices. We have come close to
because they had no money. From this came the intense saying and often now do say that a too great reduction in
debate over health care and howto pay for it. The problem unemployment is economically adverse, even dangerous. It
was thought to have been given by ideology; in fact, it was may be asked if this is not a cruel resolution of a difficult
the result ofthe great thrust ofhistory. situation: idle workers suffering the pain and deprivation
So it waswith much ofthe political debate this past year ofidleness as a stabilizing factor in the economy. It is, but
in the United States Congress, and this fact goes far to for a fairly obvious reason: inflation is feared by a wide,
explain why the oratory so far has substantially exceeded articulate, and influential public. Unemployment is suffered
the action. What was readily seen as a revolt against costly by an anonymous and relatively inarticulate community. It
and intrusive government became, on closer examination, a isfor someone else.
reaction to larger forces not easy and, indeed, on occasion The othercause ofunemployment is deep in the modern
not possible to reverse. structureofthewelfare state. Thisplaceson theemployera
The year 1995 was also one in which narrower economic substantial labourcost inaddition towages, theprovisionof
issues became obtrusively evident. In general, with Japan pension and health benefits in particular but other costs as
beingsomewhatofan exception, itwasatimeoffavourable well. These costscan be lessenedby not hiringnewworkers
economic performance. Economic growth, as it is called andby resortingto overtime, temporaryworkers, orlabour-
the broad increase —in the production of goods and the saving technology. In the modern factory the computer and
renderingofservices wasgenerallyfavourable. Priceswere the machinery it controls do to industrial workers what the
mostly stable. But there were also some very dark spots on tractoroncedidtothe horse.Thetime maywellcomewhen
theworld economic scene. more of the welfare costs now placed upon the employer
The darkest was in the former communist countries, no- will have to be taken over by the state. The cost ofhiring a