Biomechanics and Robotics PDF
Preview Biomechanics and Robotics
BIOMECHANICS AND ROBOTICS Pan Stanford Series on Renewable Energy — Volume 2 MARKO B. POPOVIC B I O M E C H A N I C S AND R O B O T I C S editors Preben Maegaard Anna Krenz Wolfgang Palz The Rise of Modern Wind Energy Wind Power for the World CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2013 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Version Date: 20131202 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4822-4273-7 (eBook - PDF) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reason- able efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www. copyright.com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organiza- tion that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com Contents Preface 1. De finiti ons and Historical Perspective: Beginnings x1i Definitions 1 Biomechanics 1 Robotics 1 Why Biomechanics and Robotics as a Joint Discipline? 2 Biomechanics: Early Beginnings 2 Biomechanics: Renaissance and Beyond 3 Biomechanics: First Motion and Force Caption Technologies 11 Robotics: Early Beginnings 15 Early Robotics in the 20th Century 22 2. ActuatoRres ferences and Suggested Reading 2393 Biological Actuators 33 Muscle Macrodynamics 35 Muscle Types 40 Skeletal muscle 41 Muscle fiber structure 42 Myofibril’s Myosin and Actin 44 Sliding Filament Theory 44 Muscle actuation details 49 Artificial Actuators 51 Combustion Engines and Actuation 52 External combustion engines 52 Internal combustion engines 54 Pneumatic Engines and Actuation 56 PAM, McKibben Artificial Muscles 58 Hydraulic Engines and Actuation 59 Electric Motors 61 Linear, voice coil, servo, and stepper motors 64 Piezoelectric motors 64 vi Contents Electroactive Polymers 65 Shape-Memory Alloys 66 3. SensorsR eferences and Suggested Reading 6775 Biological Sensors 75 Exteroception 75 Interoception 80 Proprioception 80 Sensing in Robotics and Biomechanics 80 Kinematics and Position Sensing 80 Speed Sensing 88 Acceleration Sensing 89 Force and Pressure Sensing 91 Electromyography 93 A Few Advanced Imaging Technologies 95 4. ControlR eferences and Suggested Reading 19073 General Considerations of Control Problem 103 Simple PID Control 105 Non-linear and Multi-dimensional Control Problems 106 Learning by Demonstration 108 Other Methods and Artificial Intelligence 109 Control and Physics 110 Physics, Intelligence and Free Will? 111 Neuroscience 112 The Nervous System 112 Neuron 114 Action Potential 116 Types of Motor Neurons 116 Glia 117 Neural Networks 118 Central Pattern Generators and Reflexes 119 Motor Circuitry 120 Brain “Geography” and Basic Functions 120 The forebrain 120 The midbrain and the brain stem 122 The cerebellum 122 References and Suggested Reading 123 Contents vii 5. Locomotion 127 Locomotion Definition 127 Locomotion and General Principles of Physics 128 Physics of Locomotion in Fluids 128 Buoyancy 128 The Bernoulli’s Principle 129 Drag 130 Viscosity 134 Navier–Stokes Equations and Reynolds Number 134 Locomotion in Fluids 137 Locomotion in Fluids and Reynolds Number 139 Aquatic Locomotion 140 Aircraft Flying 142 Birds Flying 143 Drag-Induced Motion 143 Biologically Inspired Ornithopters 145 Ornithopters capable of carrying a human 147 Flying Power Requirements: Flapping vs. Fixed Wings 148 Bacterial Flagella and Biological Rotary Motors 153 Physics of Terrestrial Locomotion 154 Why Legs? 154 Zero-Moment Point (ZMP) and Center of Pressure (CP) 155 The Equivalence of the ZMP and the CP for Horizontal Contact Surfaces 158 The Uniqueness of the ZMP and the CP for Complex Contact Topologies 160 Centroidal Moment Pivot (CMP) Point 161 Physics of Balance and Stability 162 Human Walking and Optimal Trajectories 167 Human Walking Energy Considerations 167 Angular Momentum 169 Balance, Stability, Energy 171 Spring Mass Model for Running and Allometry 172 Allometric Observations 173 Examples of Biological Legged Locomotion 176 A Few Records in the Legged Animal Kingdom 176 viii Contents Various Gaits 179 6. EvolutioRne foefr eLengcgeesd a nMda Schuigngeess atendd RReoabdoitnsg 118943 Early Legged Machines in the 19th Century 193 Legged Machines in the First Half of the 20th Century 195 Legged Machines during 1950–1970 196 Legged Robots during 1970–1980 197 Legged Robots during 1980–1990 199 Legged Robots during 1990–2000 204 Legged Robots since 2000 208 7. RoboticR Aedfedrietinocness taon tdh eS uHgugmesatne dB oRdeya ding 221149 Definition: Prostheses 219 Artificial Limbs 219 Limb Amputation Statistics 220 Limb Prosthetics Design Considerations 221 Body–Prosthesis Interface 225 Examples of Advanced Robotic Lower Limbs Prosthesis 230 Examples of Advanced Robotic Upper Limbs Prosthesis 237 Prosthetics inside the Human Body 240 Heart Valves 240 Artificial Heart 243 Artificial Lungs 244 Hearing Aids 246 Orthotics, Exoskeletons, Exomusculatures 249 Examples of Lower Extremities or Whole Body Advanced Systems 250 Examples of Upper Extremities Advanced Robotics Orthotic and Exo Systems 256 Toward Exomusculature 259 Exomusculature 260 From Robotics to Biomechanics 262 Advanced Wheelchairs 262 References and Suggested Reading 267 Contents ix 8. Medical Robotics 277 Surgical Robots 277 Brief Timeline of Robot-Aided Surgery Field 282 Heart–Lung Machine 286 Roller Pump 287 Centrifugal Pump 288 Robotic Patients for Training 288 Robotic Nurses 290 9. ExerciseR Pefreorbelnemcess, aQnude sStuiognges,s taendd RPeroadjeicntgs 229925 Index of Names Index of Names (Devices, Machines, and Robots) 325 Index of Terms (Biological Systems) 329 Index of Terms (Other) 335 343
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