At the Crossroads of Space and Time: Graves, Changing Society and Ideology on Saaremaa (Ösel), 9th-13th Centuries AD

282 Pages·2002·51.85 MB·English

by  Marika Mägi

AT THE CROSSROADS OF SPACE AND TIME
GRAVES, CHANGING SOCIETY AND IDEOLOGY ON SAAREMAA (ÖSEL), 9TH-13TH CENTURIES AD
Marika Mägi
Tallinn 2002
Published as a part of the research project Culture Clash or Compromise:Europeanisation of the Area of the Baltic Sea 1100–1400,
financed by the Bank of Sweden Tercentenary Foundation and the grant No 3475,financed by the Estonian Science Foundation.
The costs of editing and publishing CCC papers:6have been defrayed by
the Bank of Sweden Tercentenary Foundation
the Estonian Science Foundation
Edited by Prof.Valter Lang
Partly translated by Triinu Mets
Linguistically revised by Gordon Snow
Drawings of artefacts by Margit Terasmees and Jana Ratas
Layout by Toomas Mägi
Front cover by Toomas Mägi.Used photo:experimental re-enactment of Viking Age burial,Kuressaare 1998.
ISBN 9985-4-0228-6
ISSN 1404-0573,1404-2665
© Marika Mägi,2002
CCoonntteennttss
IINNTTRROODDUUCCTTIIOONN 55
CCHHAAPPTTEERR II.. RREESSEEAARRCCHH HHIISSTTOORRYY AANNDD TTHHEEOORREETTIICCAALL BBAACCKKGGRROOUUNNDD 88
1.1. Marxist Ideas in Soviet Archaeology 8
1.2. Development in Concepts of Estonian Prehistoric Society 9
1.3. Research History of Estonian Late Iron Age and Medieval Cemeteries 10
1.4. Research History of Late Iron Age and Early Medieval Graves on Saaremaa 11
1.5. Interpretation of Burial Rites 13
1.6. Summary 14
CCHHAAPPTTEERR IIII.. BBUURRIIAALL CCUUSSTTOOMMSS IINN TTHHEE EEAASSTTEERRNN BBAALLTTIICC AANNDD TTHHEE NNEEIIGGHHBBOOUURRIINNGG AARREEAASS 1155
2.1. Latvia and Lithuania 16
2.1.1. Eastern Lithuania 16
2.1.2. Central Lithuania (Aukshtaitia) 17
2.1.3. Semigallia 17
2.1.4. Zhemaitia 18
2.1.5. Couronia 18
2.1.6. Latgallia 21
2.1.7. Selonia 22
2.1.8. Livia 22
2.2. Estonia 24
2.2.1. Saaremaa and West Estonia 24
2.2.2. The Rest of the Estonian Mainland 25
2.3. North-West Russia 26
2.3.1. The Votes and the Izhorians 26
2.3.2. Karelia 27
2.4. Finland 28
2.5. Sweden 29
2.5.1. Mälar Area, Uppland 29
2.5.2. Gotland 30
2.6. Summary 31
CCHHAAPPTTEERR IIIIII.. SSAAAARREEMMAAAA IINN WWRRIITTTTEENN SSOOUURRCCEESS 3333
3.1. Saaremaa in the Viking Age 33
3.2. Saaremaa 1100–1227 34
3.3. Saaremaa in the 13thand 14thCenturies 35
3.4. Summary 37
CCHHAAPPTTEERR IIVV.. SSTTUUDDYY OOFF CCEEMMEETTEERRIIEESS OONN SSAAAARREEMMAAAA 3388
4.1. Stone Graves (9th–12thCentury Cemeteries) 38
4.1.1. Methods for Identifying Burial Complexes 38
4.1.2. Käku Cemetery 39
4.1.3. Piila Cemetery 43
4.1.4. Kurevere Cemetery 45
4.1.5. Randvere Cemetery 47
4.1.6. Rahu Cemetery 53
4.1.7. Kogula Cemetery 58
4.1.8. Viltina Cemetery 60
4.2. Inhumation Burials 63
4.2.1. Loona Cemetery 63
4.2.2. The Graveyard Around the Church of Valjala 65
4.2.3. Karja Cemetery 66
4.2.4. Viira Cemetery 70
4.3. Summary 74
3
Contents
CCHHAAPPTTEERR VV.. SSTTUUDDYY OOFF AARRTTEEFFAACCTTSS AANNDD BBUURRIIAALL CCOOMMPPLLEEXXEESS 7755
5.1. The Sex and/or Gender Distribution of Burials 75
5.1.1. Weapons and Other “Male Attributes” in Female Burials 77
5.1.2. “Female Attributes” in Male Burials 81
5.1.3. Probable Burials of Male–Female Couples in Stone Cemeteries 83
5.2. Artefacts in Burial Complexes 83
5.2.1. Armament 83
5.2.2. Tools 89
5.2.3. Horse Harness 95
5.2.4. Belts and Belt Fittings 96
5.2.5. Jewellery 99
5.2.6. Bronze Decoration of Garments 111
5.2.7. Pottery 113
5.2.8. Iron Rivets and Nails 114
5.3. Analysis of the Grave Goods 115
5.3.1. NAT in Osilian Graves 116
5.3.2. The Changing of Cemeteries in the Course of Time 117
5.3.3. Social Manifestation 122
5.4. Summary 124
CCHHAAPPTTEERR VVII.. CCHHAANNGGEESS IINN BBUURRIIAALL RRIITTEESS 112255
6.1. Burial Rites in the Late Iron Age 125
6.1.1. Grave Forms 125
6.1.2. Burial Rites in Stone Graves 129
6.2. Burial Rites in the Early Medieval Period 133
6.2.1. Ideological Changes 133
6.2.2. (Semi-)Christian Burials 134
6.3. Summary 137
CCHHAAPPTTEERR VVIIII.. CCHHAANNGGIINNGG TTIIMMEESS,, CCHHAANNGGIINNGG SSOOCCIIEETTYY 113388
7.1. Political Circumstances 138
7.2. Social Structure 139
7.2.1. Saaremaa in the First Half of the Viking Age 139
7.2.2. Saaremaa in the 10thCentury 139
7.2.3. Saaremaa in the 11thCentury 140
7.2.4. Saaremaa in the 12thCentury 142
7.2.5. Saaremaa in the 13th–14thCenturies 148
7.3. From Paganism to Christianity 150
7.3.1. Cross-Shaped Pendants and the Phenomenon of Primisignatio 151
7.3.2. The Role of Women in the Christianisation Process 152
7.3.3. Christianisation of the Burial Customs 153
7.3.4. The Churches 154
7.4. Summary 157
CCOONNCCLLUUSSIIOONNSS 115588
RREEFFEERREENNCCEESS 115599
AABBBBRREEVVIIAATTIIOONNSS 116688
KKookkkkuuvvõõttee.. RRuuuummii jjaa aajjaa rriisstttteeeell.. KKaallmmeedd,, mmuuuuttuuvv üühhiisskkoonndd jjaa iiddeeoollooooggiiaa SSaaaarreemmaaaall 99..––1133.. ssaajjaannddiinnii 116699
AAPPPPEENNDDIIXX 117711
PPLLAATTEESS 117755
4
INTRODUCTION
Saaremaa (known also as Ösel in Swedish and German)1 The most important export products from medieval
is the second largest island in the Baltic Sea. In most Saaremaa were grain, horses and timber.3 Archaeologist
cases the name Saaremaa embraces also the nearby Jüri Peets has suggested that from the 12thcentury up to
island of Muhu and the surrounding small islands and the middle of the 14th century Saaremaa produced so
islets (see section 3.1.). The total area of the islands is much iron that it was exported to other countries.4
2,969 sq km, thus about the same as that of Gotland. Saaremaa’s main import was salt, and, in the prehistoric
Except for the bluff northern bank, the coastline of period, possibly also the so-called prestige goods: luxury
Saaremaa is mostly shelving, low and very uneven. The weapons, furs, expensive fabrics, wine, spices, etc. By the
rate of land mass elevation in this district is about 2.5–3 end of the Iron Age, in addition to trade, plundering and the
m per 1000 years, which has caused, over a period sev- yields it gave were probably also of great importance.
eral hundred years, comparatively rapid changes of the
* * *
coastline. During the period that is discussed in the pres-
ent study many of the areas that are currently parts of The Estonian islands are ethnographically somewhat dif-
Saaremaa were still separate islands. To make the read- ferent from the mainland, mostly in their resemblance to
ing less complicated, I have used the name Saaremaa for the Swedish ethnographic material. In Late Iron Age
the whole archipelago, including the island of Muhu. archaeological finds, Saaremaa is one of the richest
Hiiumaa, the second largest island of Estonia, should be regions of Estonia, though most of the finds have not been
considered as a different district; in the period under dis- published and analysed with contemporary methods.
cussion, Hiiumaa was very sparsely populated.
German crusaders conquered Saaremaa, as they did with
Saaremaa consists of low, level islands, the highest the rest of Estonia, in the beginning of the 13th century.
points of which barely reach 50 m above sea level. The Although written records from that period are scarce,
soil of the islands is usually thin and infertile, only the there is more material concerning Saaremaa from this peri-
central and eastern parts of Saaremaa are covered with od than for other parts of Estonia. In these writings it
a more productive soil. Swamps are common; also becomes obvious what a different role the islands were
places of gravelly and sandy earth with stunted vegeta- playing in events of the 13thand 14thcenturies – mainly the
tion or soils on limestone with a thin layer of humus. greater political independence the islanders enjoyed then.
There are also few lakes on Saaremaa, the rivers there
The aim of the present study is to define in more detail
contain little water and are, owing to 20thcentury melio-
the Osilian political organisation in the Viking and Late
ration processes, almost dry nowadays.
Iron Age and its transition into a feudal society in the
The coastal soil on the island of Saaremaa is especially post-conquest period. The sources for the study are
gravelly, dependent upon weather and sensitive to mainly the ancient graves and burial traditions, the devel-
drought. A great part of the land is, therefore, used as opmental changes of which will be discussed in the fol-
pasture, but even this is low in quality. The pasture, lowing chapters. The research is thus largely based on
except some areas near the coast, tends to be abundant archaeological data, into which I have tried to integrate
in limestone or sandy, full of stones and juniper bushes. historical and human geographic information.
It is known from medieval sources that the agriculture of The Viking Age was a period when both the eastern and
Saaremaa produced mainly rye, barley and oats, and to a western coasts of the Baltic Sea could be described as
minor extent wheat. In addition to these, spring wheat, having a certain degree of cultural uniformity. Compared
spring rye, buckwheat, lentils, beans, peas, cabbages, to Catholic and feudal Western Europe, it constituted a
rape, flax and hemp were cultivated. Compared with
tillage, stock raising was better developed. The farmers
of Saaremaa possessed, according to the inventory of
1731, 4,481 horses and 12,632 cattle. In the inventory of 1 In the text I have preferred to use the Estonian name
Saaremaainstead of Ösel, but according to the widespread
1750 there were 5,825 horses and 17,433 cattle, and in
tradition in archaeological and historical literature I have
1819 as many as 6,000 horses, 20,000 cattle and 40,000 called the inhabitants of the island Osilians and used the
adjective Osilian.
sheep were counted on the islands of Saaremaa and
2Saaremaa 1934, pp 333–334.
Muhu.2 Other important subsistence industries included 3Saaremaa 1934, p 294.
fishing and seal hunting. 4Peets 1996 and verbal information.
5
INTRODUCTION
separate cultural space, though changes were waiting on mirror the social structure of a society will be argued in
its threshold. In the 11th century there began processes section 1.5. For the reasons that are discussed in chap-
that took various forms in different regions, creating an ter 1, assessment of the social progress of Saaremaa has
ideological divide for at least two centuries. 1200 to 1300 up till now been mainly based on the few existing histor-
AD was the period when the territories of present Estonia ical sources, while the archaeological data has rather
and Latvia were drawn into the ideological sphere of the been used as illustrative material. The rise of new theo-
Catholic church, as well as the economic and social ries in archaeology enables a different interpretation of
space of Western Europe. Only a hundred years before a the archaeological data, which has also been attempted
similar incorporation process with Western Europe had in the present study. It can be said that one of the aims
occurred in Scandinavia. The processes, though similar in has been to test if, in identifying the social organisation of
nature, took different courses in the East and West, and a society, the analysis of the material that is based on dif-
that was mainly due to political reasons. In Scandinavia ferent sources does result in different conclusions.
Europeanisation mainly relied on the internal develop-
To find the answers, it was imperative to analyse the
ment of the society, whereas in Estonia and Latvia it was
archaeological find material of Osilian graves. The deter-
introduced mainly by German intermediaries. In most
mination of burial complexes in the stone graves was of
general terms it could be stated that on the western side
primary importance; the methods that were used for this
of the Baltic Sea the Europeanisation process was char-
are discussed in section 4.1.1. Burial complexes were
acterised primarily by compromise, while on the eastern
evaluated by the number of artefact types they contained
side conflict prevailed.
(NAT, section 5.3), in order to analyse the changes in bur-
The international research project “Culture Clash or ial traditions and the social structure. As far as possible,
Compromise”, within the framework of which the present other kinds of archaeological data and historical sources
book has been completed, has had the aim of analysing were included in the discussion.
the means and effects of the process of Europeanisation in
To grasp the changes that took place in the 13thcentury, it
certain regions surrounding the Baltic Sea.5Because of its
was necessary to establish an understanding of the pre-
geopolitical position, Saaremaa has always stood at the
ceding i e Viking Age and Late Iron Age find material.
crossing point of different cultural influences, which has
Most of this job had to be done throughout by the author,
enabled the local inhabitants to benefit from both interna-
as very often the existing material lacked artefact typolo-
tional trade and piracy. As is also characteristic of other
gies that would have been worth consideration, and a
large islands in the Baltic Sea, especially Gotland, society
large part of the excavated finds had never been analysed.
here must have been open to outward cultural influences,
Also the material from previously analysed graves had to
thus differing from the more conventional mainland com-
be re-examined to the last detail, as even at first glance
munities. Therefore the author has considered it essential
there appeared serious contradictions caused by earlier
to offer comparisons not only with the rest of Estonia, but
theoretical ideas. Still I would like to stress here that the
also the other overseas neighbours of Saaremaa.
work of the former researchers of Osilian graves – mostly
In analysing the Late Iron Age and Early Middle Age of Aita Kustin – has not been done in vain. If it had not
cemeteries of Saaremaa and attempting to observe the been for her profound, though regrettably unpublished
social structure they might reflect, I have tried to find manuscript, I should have had to spend much more time
answers mainly to the questions concerning the social and energy on analysing all the find material. It is to her
and ideological development there. How stratified was that I should like to express – though, alas, posthumously
Osilian society in the Viking Era? How far had hierarchisa- – my sincerest gratitude and respect.
tion evolved by the end of the Iron Age, the island being
Unfortunately, the material from the Osilian graves cannot
surrounded by feudalised neighbours? How did the soci-
be considered representative enough to depict all the
ety there change in the revolutionary periods of
aspects of the local society. If we assume that the stray
Christianisation and feudalisation? Did the conquest
finds also came from burial sites, the number of Viking and
involve only violence and conflict for the Osilians or did
Late Iron Age stone graves on Saaremaa and Muhu would
they look for compromise, for possibilities of adjustment
be around sixty. Only seven of them have been excavated
with the transformed world?
by archaeologists, and the material of only six of these has
Graves and burial customs have been chosen as the ini- been used in the present research. As there is reason to
tial source of the study mainly because that is the
archaeological find material which is represented best of
all on Saaremaa. If and to what extent burial customs do
5 Blomkvist 1998.
6
INTRODUCTION
believe that the stone graves were only used by the elite cussed in the book. With the term Viking Age I indicate,
groups of the society (see section 4.3.), even all sixty of as in most Nordic countries, the period between the
these graves would still represent only a minority of the years 800 and 1050 AD; on Saaremaa, where most of
island’s population. Only four inhumation cemeteries have the changes in the archaeological material occur with the
been excavated so far (these are also discussed in the onset of the 12th century, the whole 11th century is con-
present study), which probably also encompass just a sidered as a part of the Viking Era. As there are no sig-
small share of the actual burial places. At all events, it can nificant written records on Estonia from the 12thcentury,
be stated that, although in comparison to the actual histo- the century is usually considered to be a part of prehisto-
ry of the period, the amount of available data is very limit- ry; thus the Viking Age together with the 12th century is
ed, it does reflect the burial traditions characteristic of termed the Late Iron Age. As the start of the Middle Ages
Saaremaa and, if combined with other data, it does allow is usually associated with the appearance of written
one to propose a new understanding of the funerary cus- records, the beginning of medieval times on Saaremaa
toms and the development of social relations. would therefore be about the year 1200 AD; the term
“early medieval period” that is used in places should be
For a better understanding of the following study I should
understood as the 13th–14thcenturies.
like to define the chronological system used in it, as the
same terms are used in different ways in the regions dis-
A lot of people have helped me in preparing this study. Carlsson, Jes Wienberg, Jörn Staecker and Lena
First of all I would like to thank the drawers Margit Thunmark-Nylén from Sweden, Sirkku Pihlman from
Terasmees and Jana Ratas, who made all the drawings Finland, Anna Zariņa, Jānis Asaris and Arnis Radiņš from
of the find material; Triinu Mets, who translated the Latvia, Vytautas Kazakevičius, Ernestas Vasiliauskas and
majority of this work into English, the language editor Romas Jarockis from Lithuania, Valter Lang, Heiki Valk,
Gordon Snow, and Toomas Mägi, who was responsible Marge Konsa and Kersti Markus from Estonia. The writ-
for digitising the text and for the lay-out. I am grateful ing and publishing of the present study was made possi-
also for the kind assistance of the drawer Kersti Siitan, ble by the grants offered by the Estonian Science
the translator Lii Tõrro, the anthropologists Jonathan Foundation and the international project Culture Clash or
Kalman and Raili Allmäe and the osteologist Liina Maldre. Compromise?, and also the doctoral scholarship paid by
I sincerely thank all of them for their help and the long- the University of Tartu. An important contribution to the
term co-operation they offered! final outcome of the research was made by the research
grant I received in 1998 from the Nordic Council of
I should hereby also like to offer my gratitude to all the
Ministers, which enabled me to get acquainted with the
colleagues in Estonia and elsewhere who have helped
research that has been done in the Nordic countries dur-
me in analysing the find material in all kinds of museums,
ing the last few decades.
and also to those who took time to read and comment on
parts of the manuscript. For corrections, inspiring com- The deepest gratitude of all goes to my parents who have
ments and information I am indebted overall to Ingmar been helping me to take care of my daughter Marilin dur-
Jansson, Nils Blomkvist, Sven-Olof Lindkvist, Dan ing the time I have been writing this book!
7
CChhaapptteerr 11
RESEARCH HISTORY AND
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
It is difficult to overestimate the significance of graves past was conceptualised in terms of an unilinear sequence
and burial rites in the intepretation of ancient societies. of stages, called social formations: primitive society, slave
Graves are, at the same time, the most find-abundant society and feudal society. The first of them was classified
archaeological sites during most periods, and have there- as pre-class society and divided into successive pre-clan,
fore captured much attention especially in the earlier matriarchal clan, patriarchal clan, and terminal clan stages.
archaeological research. Firstly in societies that, through- This scheme was derived from Friedrich Engels’ book The
out prehistory, have remained at the pre-literate or semi- Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State, and
literate stage, graves and burial rites have stayed an was not allowed to be questioned.1
indispensable source in the interpretation of social, eco-
Marxist philosophy saw the base for the development of
nomic and ritual structure of communities.
society in the increase of the forces of production– most-
Archaeological research is always dependent on social ly all kinds of forms of technology – that led to increase
order, and thus directly connected with political circum- in production, which in turn caused intensity in social
stances. It is also valid for Estonia, which, together with relations that finally changed the social formation. These
the other Baltic states, belonged to the former Soviet rules were considered universal, but many archaeological
Union for half of the 20thcentury. It was a time of crucial cultures were believed to have been in a transitional
changes in archaeological thought in the west, including state of development. In some cultures certain social for-
Scandinavia that was separated from the eastern coast mations could be avoided, as, for instance, in the Baltic
of the Baltic Sea by the Iron Curtain. That is the reason states, where the formation of the pre-class society was
why no direct parallels could be drawn between archae- considered to have been followed directly by feudalism.
ology in the East and in the West.
Approaches to the Marxist theoretical framework devel-
One cannot deny that the archaeological research of oped gradually in course of the 20thcentury, but on the ter-
modern times is influenced by the present political ideas, ritory of the former Soviet Union the basic structure of the
too, a fact which is also uncontestably valid for the pres- paradigm was never changed. No theoretical thought out-
ent writing. How objective have I succeeded in being in side its frames was allowed to be discussed or published.2
my interpretations, remains for the readers to estimate.
Marxist interpretation of the development of the society
was considered to be so universal that the study of it
formed a compulsory part in every field of education in the
1.1. Marxist Ideas in Soviet Archaeology
former Soviet Union. Regardless of the lack of availability
The development of archaeological thought progressed of western literature about the theoretical aspects of
on similar lines in Scandinavia and in the Baltic states archaeology, the over-stylised and overpoliticised Marxist
until 1940 when the latter were annexed by Soviet paradigm was generally not supported by archaeologists in
troops. After this, archaeology on eastern and western the Baltic states. As a result research focused on artefacts
shores of the Baltic developed in ways that almost con- and single archaeological sites, especially cemeteries as
tradicted each other. Rapid theoretical changes in atti- the main source for artefacts. More general theoretical
tudes towards archaeological material culture that took approaches were avoided. Study of artefacts, though, was
place in Western Europe and the United States in recent superficial, and the few typologies that were worked out
decades hardly reached the Soviet Union and the Baltic remained diffuse and inexact.
states which were then part of it. The political and ideo-
Throughout the Soviet period the archaeology of the
logical estrangement of Soviet archaeology caused, in
Baltic states remained generally on the level of the cul-
turn, a lack of information about the processes of Eastern
tural-historical schools of the first half of the 20th centu-
Baltic archaeology in the West.
ry.3When in Soviet archaeology ideas about diffusionism
Archaeology in the Baltic states, as everywhere in the for-
mer Soviet Union, was supported as an important instru-
ment of political education and was, like other human sci-
1See Trigger 1989, pp 207 ff.
ences, ruled by politicised Marxist paradigms up to the 2See Klejn 1991.
1990s. According to Marxist historical materialism the 3Parallel processes in Latvia see Šnē1999.
8