Appetite, Volume 50, Issue 01 (January 2008)

180 Pages·2010·5.24 MB·English

by  P. Atkins

ARTICLE IN PRESS
Appetite50(2008)1–11
www.elsevier.com/locate/appet
Research Review
How emotions affect eating: A five-way model
Michael Macht
DepartmentofPsychology,UniversityofWu¨rzburg,Marcusstr.9-11,97070Wu¨rzburg,Germany
Received18April2006;receivedinrevisedform13July2007;accepted16July2007
Abstract
Despite the importance of affective processes in eating behaviour, it remains difficult to predict how emotions affect eating.
Emphasizingindividualdifferences,previousresearchdidnotpayfullattentiontothetwofoldvariabilityofemotion-inducedchangesof
eating (variability across both individuals and emotions). By contrast, the present paper takes into account both individual
characteristicsandemotionfeatures,andspecifiesfiveclassesofemotion-inducedchangesofeating:(1)emotionalcontroloffoodchoice,
(2)emotionalsuppressionoffoodintake,(3)impairmentofcognitiveeatingcontrols,(4)eatingtoregulateemotions,and(5)emotion-
congruentmodulationofeating.Theseclassesaredistinguishedbyantecedentconditions,eatingresponsesandmediatingmechanisms.
They point to basic functional principles underlying the relations between emotions and biologically based motives: interference,
concomitance and regulation. Thus, emotion-induced changes of eating can be a result of interference of eating by emotions, a by-
productofemotions,andaconsequenceofregulatoryprocesses(i.e.,emotionsmayregulateeating,andeatingmayregulateemotions).
r2007Elsevier Ltd. Allrights reserved.
Keywords:Emotion;Eating;Mood;Emotionaleating;Restrainedeating;Motivation;Foodchoice
Contents
Introduction . . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. 1
Variability of emotion-inducedchanges of eating. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. 2
Variability acrossindividuals.. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . ..2
Variability acrossemotions . .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . ..3
Previous theories. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. 4
A five-waymodel .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. 4
Food-induced emotions controlfoodchoice .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . ..5
Intense emotionssuppress foodintake .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . ..5
Negative and positive emotionsimpair cognitive eating controls. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . ..6
Negative emotions elicit eating to regulate emotions. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . ..6
Emotions modulate eatingin congruence withemotionfeatures . .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . ..7
Discussion .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. 7
Emotion-induced eating in restrained andemotional eaters. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . ..7
Emotion-induced eating in normaleaters .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . ..8
References .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. 8
Introduction
Emotions serve distinct motivational functions and
E-mailaddress:[email protected] contribute essentially to control of basic behavioural
0195-6663/$-seefrontmatterr2007ElsevierLtd.Allrightsreserved.
doi:10.1016/j.appet.2007.07.002
ARTICLE IN PRESS
2 M.Macht/Appetite50(2008)1–11
systems in animals and men (e.g. Frederickson, 1998; bility of emotion-induced changes of eating is summarized
Frijda, 1986; Izard & Ackerman, 2000; Plutchik, 1984; briefly.
Tomkins, 1963). Specific emotions such as anger, fear,
sadness, and joy, as well as moods that are thought to last Variability of emotion-induced changes of eating
longerandbemorediffuse(e.g.Ekman,1992;Frijda,1993)
havebeenfoundtoaffecteatingresponsesalongtheentire Variability across individuals
process of ingestion: motivation to eat (Macht & Simons,
2000), affective responses to foods (Ferber & Cabanac, Aseriesofexperimentsshowedthatrestrainedeaters(as
1987; Willner & Healy, 1994), food choice (e.g. Gibson, identified by questionnaire; e.g. Herman & Mack, 1975;
2006; Oliver & Wardle, 1999), chewing (Macht, 1998), Stunkard & Messick, 1985) consume more food than non-
eating speed (Krebs, Macht, Weyers, Weijers, & Janke, restrained eaters in response to fear and negative mood
1996), amount ingested (Greeno & Wing, 1994 for a states (for a review, see Greeno & Wing, 1994, also
review), as well as metabolism and digestion (Blair, Wing, Heatherton, Striepe, & Wittenberg, 1998; Rotenberg &
&Wald,1991;Wing,Blair,Epstein,&McDermott,1990). Flood,1999;Rutledge&Linden,1998;Tuschen,Florin,&
Surveys demonstrate that most people experience changes Baucke, 1993). Restrained eating refers to a persistent
of eating in response to emotional stress (on average 30% pattern of eating-related cognitions and behaviours in
an increase and 48% a decrease of appetite or intake, order to reduce or to maintain body weight (Herman &
Table 1). Epidemiological data indicate that stress-related Mack, 1975). Another experiment demonstrated that
eating is associated with increased body weight (Laitinen, emotional eaters (also identified by questionnaire; van
Ek, & Sovio, 2002). Not surprisingly, effects of emotions Strien, Frijters, Bergers, & Defares, 1986) consume more
on eating have been studied extensively, but due to their sweet, high-fat foods in response to emotional stress than
variability it remains difficult to predict how an emotion non-emotional eaters (Oliver, Wardle & Gibson, 2000).
affects eating in a given group of persons. Field studies showed that negative emotional states in
Emotions can increase food intake in one group of everydaylifecanbeassociatedwithatendencytoeatasan
persons, e.g. restrained eaters, but decrease food intake in emotion regulation strategy (Macht, Haupt, & Ellgring,
another group, e.g. non-restrained eaters. Furthermore, 2005;Macht&Simons,2000).Emotionaleatingisthought
different emotions may increase or decrease eating in the to be instigated in order to cope with negative emotions
same group of individuals. For example, boredom may be (Bruch, 1973; Kaplan & Kaplan, 1957).
associated with increased appetite, but sadness with Probably, the influences of both eating habits are
decreased appetite (e.g. Pudel & Richter, 1980). This reflected in effects of emotions on binge eating. Negative
twofold variability (across individuals and emotions) has emotionshavebeenfoundtoincreasethetendencytobinge
been neglected by previous research. Based on an in bulimia nervosa and the binge eating disorder (experi-
individual difference model, it was mostly examined ments: Agras & Telch, 1998; Cattanach, Malley, & Rodin,
whether eating habits predispose people to increase food 1988; Chua, Touyz, & Hill, 2004; Gluck, Geliebter, Hung,
intake in response to negative emotions (Greeno & Wing, & Yahav, 2004; Telch & Agras, 1996; field studies: Alpers
1994). The present paper introduces an integrative model &Tuschen-Caffier,2001;Cooper &Bowskill,1986;Davis,
that takes into account both individual characteristics and Freeman, & Garner, 1988; Johnson & Larson, 1982;
emotion features. First, the empirical evidence on varia- Kenardy, Arnow, & Agras, 1996). Taken together, studies
indicate that restrained eaters increase food intake,
emotional eaters consume more sweet, high-fat foods,
Table1 and binge eaters tend to binge in response to negative
Changesofeatinginresponsetoemotionalstressreportedinsurveys emotions.
By contrast, normal eaters (i.e. normal-weight persons
Changeofeating N Reference
whose emotional and restrained eating scores fall within
11%moreappetite,70% 364 KrumbacherandMeyer the normal range) are usually assumed to reduce food
lessappetite (1963) intakeinresponsetonegativeemotions(Herman&Polivy,
16%moreappetite,38% 1950 PudelandRichter(1980)
1984;Schachter,Goldman,&Gordon,1968).Theevidence
lessappetite
does not support this assumption. Table 2 summarizes
25%moreappetite,32% 1024 Pudel(1984)
lessappetite experimentalstudiesinnormal-eatingpopulations:43%of
44%eatmore,48%eat 80 Willenbringetal.(1986) the results indicate an increase, 39% a decrease and 26%
less no change of eating in response to emotions (as shown by
4%eatmore,55%eatless 475 Popperetal.(1989)
Bellisle et al. (1990), in the latter studies possibly one part
49%eatmore,51donot 500 Spillman(1990)
of the sample reduced and the other part increased food
eatmore
55%eatmore,45%do 101 Weinsteinetal.(1997) intake).
noteatmore Similarly, surveys and field studies showed that stress
38%eatmore,42%eat 212 OliverandWardle(1999) and negative emotions can be associated with both
less
increased and decreasedmotivation toeatandfoodintake
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M.Macht/Appetite50(2008)1–11 3
Table2
Effectsofemotionsoneating:experimentalstudiesinnormalsubjects
Effect Eatingmeasure Emotion Reference
Increase Foodintake Negativemood LoweandMaycock(1988)
Negativemood Willneretal.(1998)
Fear Pine(1985)
Fear PinesandGal(1977)
Fear Bellisleetal.(1990)
Arousal Glass(1967)
Arousal Cantoretal.(1982)
Arousal GrunbergandStraub(1992)
Boredom AbramsonandStinson(1977)
Anger Macht(1996)
Hedonicresponses Arousal/stress FerberandCabanac(1987)
Joy Machtetal.(2002)
Motivationtoeat Joy Machtetal.(2002)
Anger Macht(1996)
Chocolatecraving Negativemood Willneretal.(1998)
Decrease Foodintake Negativemood BaucomandAiken(1981)
Fear Schachteretal.(1968)
Fear HermanandPolivy(1975)
Fear Heathertonetal.(1991)
Fear Hermanetal.(1987)
Fear Bellisleetal.(1990)
Arousal GrunbergandStraub(1992)
Hedonicresponses Depressivemood WillnerandHealy(1994)
Sadness Machtetal.(2002)
Motivationtoeat Sadness Machtetal.(2002)
Arousal Macht(1998)
Chewing Arousal Macht(1998)
Effect Eatingmeasure Emotion Reference
Noeffect Foodintake Negativemood Frostetal.(1982)
Negativemood Tuschenetal.(1993)
Negativemood TelchandAgras(1996)
Negativemood Ruderman(1985)
Fear ReznickandBalch(1977)
Fear Heathertonetal.(1991)
Fear Schotteetal.(1990)
Fear Coolsetal.(1992)
(Table 1; de Castro, 1986; Hill, Weaver, & Blundell, 1991; Animal studies point to a role of intensity for the
Macdiarmid & Hetherington, 1995; McCann, Warnick, & directionofeffectsofemotionalstressonfoodintake.Rats
Knopp, 1990; Michaud et al., 1990; Pollard, Steptoe, decrease food intake during intense noise (Alario, Gama-
Canaan,Davies, &Wardle,1995;Rosenfield&Stevenson, llo, Beato, & Trancho, 1987; Pare´, 1964), in response to
1988; Slochower, 1983; Steptoe, Lipsey, & Wardle, 1998; intense electric shock (Strongman, 1965; Weiss, 1968), and
Stone & Brownell, 1994; Striegel-Moore et al., 1999; during chronic stress (Sampson, Muscat, Philips, & Will-
Wardle, Steptoe, Oliver, & Lipsey, 2000; Weidner, Kohl- ner, 1992; Willner, Muscat, & Papp, 1992), but increase
mann,Dotzauer,&Burns,1996).Basedonthisevidence,it foodintakeoreatingspeedinresponsetolowormoderate
is difficult to predict how normal eaters change eating in noise and electric shock (Krebs et al., 1996; Kupferman,
response to emotions. 1964; Rasbury & Shemberg, 1971; Sterritt, 1962, 1965;
Sterritt & Shemberg, 1963; Strongman, Coles, Remington,
Variability across emotions &Wookey,1970;Ullman,1951,1952).Resultsofahuman
study correspond to these data (Mehrabian, 1980).
Dimensions used to classify emotions, namely valence Participants imagined themselves in various emotions and
(pleasure–displeasure), arousal (e.g. Greenwald, Cook, & reported how much they would eat during each of these
Lang, 1989; Russell & Feldman Barrett, 1999) and emotions. Compared with low-arousal states (e.g. bore-
intensity (Frijda, Ortony, Sonnemans, & Clore, 1992), dom, depressive mood) high-arousal states (e.g. tension,
have been found to make an essential contribution to fear) were reported to inhibit food intake. These results
variability of emotion-induced changes of eating. There is support the view that high-arousal or intense emotions
clear evidence that emotions differing in valence and decrease food intake whereas low- to moderate emotions
arousal or intensity exert different influences on eating. may increase food intake (Robbins & Fray, 1980).
ARTICLE IN PRESS
4 M.Macht/Appetite50(2008)1–11
Table3
Previousmodelsofemotion-inducedchangesofeating
Typeofmodel Explainedphenomenon Mediatingmechanism Scope Reference
Psychological Increasedfoodintakeinresponseto Disinhibitionofrestrainedeating Restrainedeaters HermanandPolivy
models emotions (1984)
dto. Impairmentofcognitivecapacity Restrainedeaters Boonetal.(2002)
Increasedfoodintakeinresponseto Reductionofnegativeemotionsby Emotionaleaters Bruch(1973),
negativeemotions eating Slochower(1983),
Booth(1994)
Bingeeating Escapefromaversiveself-awareness Restrainedeaters, Heathertonand
bulimics Baumeister(1991)
Physiological Decreasedfoodintakeinresponse Antagonisticphysiologicalstress Animals,humans Schachteretal.
models tostressandfear responses (1968)
Decreasedhedonicreactionsduring Reducedbraindopamine Animals,humans Willneretal.(1992)
chronicmildstress
Eatinginducedbytail-pinch Activationofendogenousopiates Rats Morleyetal.(1983)
Biologicalmodels Increasedeatingspeedinastressful Dispositiontoensureenergysupply Animals Lima(1987),
environment Whishawetal.
(1992)
Eatingboutsinresponsetoarousal Reductionofarousalthrougheating Animal,humans Cantor(1981)
andfrustration
Human studies demonstrated that positive and negative Table 3, previous theories aim at different phenomena,
emotions could differ markedly in their effects on eating. propose different mediating mechanisms and differ in
Negative emotions such as anger, fear, and sadness may scope. It has been a major problem for research that
increase impulsive eating (i.e. fast and irregular eating theories were mostly treated separately. Therefore, a
directed at any food available), eating to regulate the general framework is provided in the following. It is
emotional state and consumption of junk food, but suggested that emotions affect eating in five basic ways,
decrease food pleasantness. By contrast, joy and other which encompass phenomena addressed by previous
positive emotions increase food pleasantness and con- theories.
sumption of healthy foods (Lyman, 1982; Macht, 1999;
Macht, Roth, & Ellgring, 2002). A five-way model
To summarize, high-arousal or intense emotions sup-
press eating, and negative emotions can increase or Asshownabove,anumberoffactorswereidentifiedthat
decrease food intake. Little is known about effects of makeanessentialcontributiontoemotion-inducedchanges
positive emotions on eating and about differences between ofeating:arousal/intensity,valenceandfoodrelatednessof
negative emotions such as anger, sadness and fear in their emotions as well as restrained and emotional eating.
effects on eating. Clinical studies indicate that anger is an Taking into account these factors as antecedents, effects
important antecedent of binge eating (Arnow, Kenardy, & of emotions on eating can be classified into five basic
Agras, 1992). It has also been suggested that disgust classes:
contributes to the maintenance of pathological eating
patterns and may complicate attempts to normalize eating (1) Emotions aroused by food stimuli affect food choice.
(Troop, Treasure, & Serpell, 2002). (2) Emotions high in arousal or intensity suppress eating
due to incompatible emotional responses.
Previous theories (3) Emotionsmoderateinarousalorintensityaffecteating
depending on motivations to eat:
During the past decades, a number of theories have (a) Inrestrainedeating,negativeandpositiveemotions
attempted to explain the manifold effects of emotions on enhancefoodintakeduetoimpairmentofcognitive
eating. Whereas emotion-induced increase of food intake control.
was explained by psychological mechanisms (Bruch, 1969, (b) In emotional eating, negative emotions elicit the
1973; Heatherton & Baumeister, 1991; Herman & Polivy, tendency to be regulated by eating and, as a
1984; Slochower, 1983), physiological mechanisms were consequence, enhance intake of sweet and high-fat
proposed to explain emotion-induced decrease of intake foods.
(Herman & Polivy, 1984; Schachter et al., 1968; Willner, (c) In normal eating, emotions affect eating in con-
1997). Biologically oriented theories emphasized the gruence with their cognitive and motivational
adaptive function of changes of feeding behaviour in features.
stressful situations (Cantor, 1981; Lima, 1987; Whishaw,
Dringenberg, & Comery, 1992). As can be seen from The flow diagram in Fig. 1 gives a visual presentation.
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M.Macht/Appetite50(2008)1–11 5
Emotion
yes Preference
Food-induced Control of
Craving
emotion? food choice
Avoidance
no
yes
Intense emotion? Suppression Decreased food intake
no
Impairment of
Restrained
cognitive eating Increased food intake
eating
controls
yes
Eating habits
related to emotions?
Eating to
no Emotional regulate Increased intake of
eating sweet, high-fat foods
emotions
yes
Emotion features Congruent Change of eating congruent
relevant to eating? modulation with emotion features
no
No change of eating
Fig.1. Aflowdiagramtopredictbasicclassesofemotion-inducedchangesofeating.
Emotionsoflowarousalorintensityarenotexpectedto Smulders, Havermans, & Jansen, 2004; Nederkoorn,
affect eating. In the following, each class is described in Smulders, & Jansen, 2000) which vary across individuals
detail. and can contribute to binge eating (Jansen, 1998). A
number of studies demonstrated heightened cue reactivity
Food-induced emotions control food choice inrestrainedeaters,bingeeatersandbulimicsascompared
to controls (Carter, Bulik, McIntosh, & Joyce, 2001;
Food-induced emotions are powerful determinants of Federoff, Polivy, & Herman, 2003; Karhunen, Lappalai-
foodchoice(Galef,1996;Martins&Pliner,2005;Rozin& nen, Tammela, Turpeinen, & Uusitupa, 1997; Staiger,
Schulkin, 1990). Tasting energy-dense food such as sugar Dawe, & McCarthy, 2000), although lack of differences
and fat evokes positive affective responses that promote between groups has also been reported (e.g. Klaijner,
ingestion, whereas tasting bitter compounds, which are Herman, Polivy, & Chhabra, 1980; Overduin, Jansen, &
correlated with toxins, evokes negative affective responses Eilkes, 1997). It is important to recognize that in some
that promote rejection (Rosenstein & Oster, 1988; Steiner, persons by contingent pairing of emotions and eating,
1979). The biological basis of these affective reactions is emotions may become food-related cues and thus elicit
demonstratedinhomology acrossprimatespecies(Steiner, eating (Booth, 1994).
Hawilo, Glaser, & Berridge, 2001). Notably, food-induced
emotional responses encompass full-blown emotions, in Intense emotions suppress food intake
particular, neophobia and disgust (Raudenbush & Frank,
1999; Rozin & Fallon, 1987). Animal studies demonstrated that intense or chronic
Appetitive food-related stimuli can elicit a strong desire stresssharplydecreasesfoodintake(forreviewsseeGreeno
to eat or craving that can be conceived as an additional &Wing,1994;Robbins&Fray,1980,Section‘‘Variability
variant of food-induced emotions. Such craving co-occurs across emotions’’). Consequently, it was proposed that a
with a number of autonomic responses (Nederkoorn, decreased food intake is the ‘‘natural’’ response to stress
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6 M.Macht/Appetite50(2008)1–11
(Herman & Polivy, 1984; Schachter et al., 1968). In fact, Telch, 1998; Gluck et al., 2004) and can be treated
intense emotions are linked with both behaviours and successfully by improving their skills to regulate emotions
physiological responses that interfere with eating. For (Telch, Agras, & Linehan, 2001; Wiser & Telch, 1999).
example, intense sadness is associated with behavioural Moreover, studies indicate that healthy, normal-weight
deactivation and withdrawal from the environment. personsregulatenegativeemotionsbyeating(Macht,1999;
Intense fear motivates flight and avoidance, and is also Macht et al., 2005; Macht & Simons, 2000).
associatedwithautonomicresponsesinhibitingmotivation Emotionaleatingtheoryoriginatedfrompsychodynamic
to eat. Stress-induced physiological changes may interfere thinking, but can be related to a number of more recent
with digestion by delaying glucose absorption and gastro- approaches. The core assumption of the theory (i.e., that
intestinal transit (Blair et al., 1991; Wing et al., 1990). negative emotions induce eating and are, as a result,
reduced)hasbeenviewedfromalearningperspective,with
Negative and positive emotions impair cognitive eating negative emotions as eliciting stimuli, eating as operant
controls behaviour, and its consequence, the eating-induced reduc-
tion of negative emotions, as negative reinforcement
Restraint theory suggested that emotional stress disin- (Booth, 1994). Regulation was also taken into account by
hibits dietary restraint and therefore increases food intake biological approaches which conceptualized arousal-
(Herman & Polivy, 1984). In this view, negative emotions inducedeatingas‘‘adjunctivebehaviour’’or‘‘displacement
were thought to undermine restrained eaters’ ability to activity’’ that reduces arousal (Cantor, 1981). Finally,
continue dieting, because they impose a ‘‘more urgent eating has been viewed as a strategy to improve negative
concern (i.e., how to cope with the stressor) than even mood (Thayer, 1989, 2001), to mask stress (masking
dieting’’ and lead to eating ‘‘as if the diet boundary had hypothesis; Polivy & Herman, 1999), or to escape from
been knocked down’’ (p. 152). The diet boundary was aversive self-awareness (escape theory; Heatherton &
conceivedas‘‘thedieter’sself-imposedquotaforconsump- Baumeister, 1991).
tiononagivenoccasion’’(p.149).Althoughthisappeared In spite of its popularity and plausibility, the concept of
to be a plausible explanation, the common experimental emotional eating does however face some unresolved
design comparing individuals with high or low scores on problems. Above all, the underlying mechanisms are far
restraint scales was not appropriate to test putative from clear. Usually, nutrient-dependent physiological
mediating mechanisms (Greeno & Wing, 1994). changes are proposed to mediate mood-elevating effects
An alternative explanation was suggested by Boon, of eating. Carbohydrate-rich meals may lead to a
Stroebe, Schut, and Jansen (1998). According to their postprandial improvement of mood (for reviews see
‘‘limited capacity hypothesis’’, restrained eaters’ food Benton&Donohoe,1999;Christensen,1993,1997;Gibson
intake is increased, if their cognitive capacity to maintain & Green, 2002) and also to reduced stress responses in
restricted food intake is limited by distraction (be it emotionallylabilesubjects(Markus,Panhuysen,&Tuiten,
emotionalornot).Processingofemotionalstimulirequires 1998). These effects were explained by meal-induced
attention, and since cognitive capacity is limited, cognitive increase of brain serotonin availability (Wurtman, 1982).
control over eating may be impaired. The overeating However, relatively small proportions of protein in a meal
response was attributed to ironic processes, i.e., the more may deteriorate the increase of tryptophan levels at the
peopleexertcognitivecontrol,thehighertheirvulnerability blood–brain barrier and, thus, an increase of brain
to overeating will be. A number of experimental studies serotonin. Since most carbohydrate-rich mealsin everyday
supported this assumption (Boon, Stroebe, Schut, & life contain some protein, the ecological validity of the
IJntema, 2002; Boon et al., 1998; Lattimore & Caswell, serotonin hypothesis can be questioned (Benton, 2002).
2004;Lattimore&Maxwell,2004;Vreugdenberg,Bryan,& Another physiological mechanism is suggested by animal
Kemps, 2003; Wallis & Hetherington, 2004; Ward & data demonstrating that ingestion of high fat and
Mann, 2000). carbohydrate ‘‘comfort foods’’ (Wansink, Cheney, &
Chan,2003)reducesactivityofthehypothalamo-pituitary–
Negative emotions elicit eating to regulate emotions adrenal axis and dampens stress responses (Dallman
et al., 2003).
Emotional eating theory suggested that certain indivi- The main problem with both the serotonin and the
duals eat in order to cope with stress and are therefore at endocrinehypothesisisthatemotionaleffectsofeatingcan
risk of becoming obese (Bruch, 1969, 1973; Kaplan, 1957; occuronlywithdelay.Suchdelayedeffectsmightbeuseful
Slochower, 1983). As the German colloquialism ‘‘Kum- for coping with chronic stress, but not for responding to
merspeck’’ (literally: fat of sorrow) shows, it is a popular negativeemotions,astheyarisefromunpredictablestimuli
view that emotional eating causes obesity. Although this suchasdailyhassles.Inordertocopewiththeseemotions,
view proved to be over-simplistic (Greeno & Wing, 1994), it would be most efficient to reduce their intensity
evidence did emerge for a role of emotional eating in a immediately. Indeed, sweet solutions have been shown to
subgroup of obese persons. Obese binge eaters experience rapidly calm stress responses in human newborns (Smith,
anincreasedtendencytobingeinnegativemood(Agras& Fillion, &Blass, 1990). Similarly,in adults, experimentally
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M.Macht/Appetite50(2008)1–11 7
induced negative mood is improved immediately and such as thirst, sex and aggression. To improve under-
selectively after eating palatable food, and this effect is standing of the manifold effects of emotions on eating
most pronounced in persons scoring high on emotional research has to disentangle mediating mechanisms and to
eating (Macht & Mu¨ller, 2007). This suggests that identify relations between classes of emotion-induced
immediate positive affective reactions elicited by palatable changes of eating. In particular, two problems remain to
foodsdiminishtheimpactofstress.Additionally,itmaybe be resolved.
important here that eatingdistracts from the experience of
negative emotions (Spitzer & Rodin, 1983). One might Emotion-induced eating in restrained and emotional eaters
speculate that immediate effects of eating based on
hedonistic mechanisms and distraction, play a major role Negative emotions increase food intake in restrained
in the regulation of everyday emotions and constitute a eatersaswellasintakeofsweet,high-fatfoodinemotional
common phenomenon that applies to the general popula- eaters (Section ‘‘Variability across individual’’). To
tion. By contrast, in binge eating, immediate hedonic explain these findings, it was suggested that emotional
effects may be backed up or substituted by delayed and eaters eat to reduce negative emotions. By contrast,
long-lasting physiological effects of chronic high fat and restrained eaters were thought to increase food intake,
carbohydrate consumption. because emotions impair cognitive control over their
restricted eating pattern (Sections ‘‘Negative and positive
Emotions modulate eating in congruence with emotion emotions impair cognitive eating controls’’ and ‘‘Negative
features emotions elicit eating to regulate emotions’’). Although
restrained and emotional eating appear to reflect different
During negative mood, negative verbal information is neurobiological processes (Volkow et al., 2003), it remains
retrieved more readily than positive information, and unclear whether increased consumption in response to
conversely, positive information is retrieved more readily emotions is in fact mediated by different mechanisms in
during positive mood (for a review, see Berkowitz, 2000, restrained and emotional eaters. The present model
pp. 78–83). This congruency effect was also shown for suggests two ways to test empirically the assumption of
recognition of palatable and unpalatable food flavours different mechanisms.
(Pliner&Steverango,1994)aswellasforemotion-induced First, emotional and restrained eaters should differ
changesofeating.Sadnesshasbeenfoundtodecreaseand intheireatingresponsestovariousemotionsandstressors.
joy to increase food pleasantness and motivation to eat Provided that cognitive control of eating can be imp-
(Machtetal.,2002;Willner&Healy,1994).Thesechanges aired by a variety of influences, restrained eaters should
canbeexplainedbyemotionfeatures.Sadnessisassociated increase food intake in response to both negative and
with a slowing of cognitive processes and motor activity positive emotions and also to cognitive demand.
(Izard & Ackerman, 2000), with an absence of interest By contrast, emotional eaters should increase eating only
(Frijda,1986,p.22),andwithaloweringofattentiontothe in response to negative emotions. Second, emotion-
outside(Barr-Zisowitz,2000).Bycontrast,joyisassociated induced eating should exert different effects on emotional
withanincreasedcapabilitytoperceiveandprocessstimuli state in emotional and restrained eaters. Consistent
and an increased readiness to engage in activities (Freder- with the assumption that emotional eaters increase food
ickson,1998;Frijda,1986;Izard&Ackerman,2000).Such intaketoreducenegativeemotions,theycanbeexpectedto
emotion-congruentchangesofeatingcanbeconceivedasa report reduced negative emotions due to eating.
by-product of emotional activation, and should mostly By contrast, restrained eaters should experience no change
occur, if emotions are elicited during eating. of mood due to emotion-induced eating or may even
report deterioration of mood (because of fear to gain
Discussion weight).
There is some evidence supporting these predictions.
Thepresentpaperproposesfivebasicclassesofemotion- Restrainedeatershaveindeedbeenshowntoincreasefood
induced changes of eating that can be predicted by intake not only in response to negative emotions, but also
antecedent conditions and point to basic functional to positive emotions (Cools, Schotte, & McNnally, 1992;
principles relating emotions and eating. Depending on Tuschen et al., 1993) and cognitive demand (e.g. Wallis &
emotion features and eating habits emotion-induced Hetherington, 2004); it remains, however, to be examined
changes of eating can be a result of interference (suppres- whether emotional eaters’ intake can also be increased by
sion of food intake; impairment of cognitive eating positive emotions and non-emotional stressors. Also,
controls), a by-product of emotions (emotion-congruent improvement of experimentally induced negative mood
modulation of eating), and a consequence of regulatory by eating has been found to be correlated with emotional,
processes (emotional control of food choice; eating to but not with restrained eating (Macht & Mu¨ller, 2007). In
regulate emotions). Future research may examine whether spite of this evidence, however, more studies comparing
these principles can be applied to relations between emotion-induced changes of eating in restrained and
emotions and other biologically motivated behaviours emotional eaters are needed.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
8 M.Macht/Appetite50(2008)1–11
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