Analyzing environmental and structural characteristics of concrete for carbon mitigation and climate adaptation in urban areas: a case study in Rajkot, India

2013·7.5 MB·English

by  Solis, Andrea Valdez

ANALYZING ENVIRONMENTAL AND STRUCTURAL CHARACTERSITICS OF
CONCRETE FOR CARBON MITIGATION AND CLIMATE ADAPTATION IN
URBAN AREAS: A CASE STUDY IN RAJKOT, INDIA
by
Andrea Valdez Solis
B.S., New Mexico State University, 2006
M.S. New Mexico State University, 2008

A dissertation submitted to the
Faculty of the Graduate School of the
University of Colorado in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
Civil Engineering
2013
© 2013
ANDREA VALDEZ SOLIS
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
This dissertation for the Doctor of Philosophy degree by
Andrea Valdez Solis
has been approved for the
Civil Engineering Program
by

Stephan A. Durham, Chair

Anu Ramaswami, Co-Advisor
Arunprakash Karunanithi
Ross Corotis
Yunping Xi

December 17, 2012
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Solis, Andrea, Valdez (Ph.D., Civil Engineering)
Analyzing Environmental and Structural Characteristics of Concrete for Carbon
Mitigation and Climate Adaptation in Urban Areas: A Case Study in Rajkot, India

Dissertation directed by Associate Professor Stephan A. Durham

ABSTRACT
Increasing temperatures, varying rain events accompanied with flooding or
droughts coupled with increasing water demands, and decreasing air quality are just some
examples of stresses that urban systems face with the onset of climate change and rapid
urbanization. Literature suggests that greenhouse gases are a leading cause of climate
change and are of a result of anthropogenic activities such as infrastructure development.
Infrastructure development is heavily dependent on the production of concrete. Yet,
concrete can contribute up to 7% of total CO emissions globally from cement
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manufacturing alone.
The goal of this dissertation was to evaluate current concrete technologies that
could contribute to carbon mitigation and climate adaptation in cities. The objectives
used to reach the goal of the study included (1) applying a material flow and life cycle
analysis (MFA-LCA) to determine the environmental impacts of pervious and high
volume fly ash (HVFA) concrete compared to ordinary portland cement (OPC) concrete
in a developing country; (2) performing a comparative assessment of pervious concrete
mixture designs for structural and environmental benefits across the U.S. and India; and
(3) Determining structural and durability benefits from HVFA concrete mixtures when
subjected to extreme hot weather conditions (a likely element of climate change).
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The study revealed that cities have a choice in reducing emissions, improving
stormwater issues, and developing infrastructure that can sustain higher temperatures.
Pervious and HVFA concrete mixtures reduce emissions by 21% and 47%, respectively,
compared to OPC mixtures. A pervious concrete demonstration in Rajkot, India showed
improvements in water quality (i.e. lower levels of nitrogen by as much as 68% from
initial readings), and a reduction in material costs by 25% . HVFA and OPC concrete
mixtures maintained compressive strengths above a design strength of 27.6 MPa (4000
psi), achieved low to moderate permeability’s (1000 to 4000 coulombs), and prevented
changes in length that could be detrimental to the performance of the concrete in long-
term temperatures above 37.8oC (100oF).

The form and content of this abstract are approved. I recommend its publication.
Approved: Stephan A. Durham

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DEDICATION
I dedicate this work to my parents Loretta Valdez and Andrew Chávez and to all
the people from the pueblitos of Northern New Mexico. The love, care, and support
these people show help others strive for the best, believe, and remain positive in life.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank my advisors Dr. Stephan Durham and Dr. Anu Ramaswami.
My advisors provided me a unique PhD experience that has taught me how to be a
stronger person both in life and in my profession. The PhD was challenging but, Dr.
Duhram and Dr. ramswami helped me to realize the importance of remaining patient,
motivated, and grateful while doing research. I am honored to have studied under the
guidance of these two very important people who are admired for their personalities and
contributions to engineering and sustainability. I come away with a PhD striving to
model the best attributes of my advisors, Dr. Durham for his practicality, passion for
teaching, and appreciation he shows to others and Dr. Ramswami for her devotion and
dedication she puts into every project, ability to challenge and motivate you with her
words, and the courage they both display in being leaders in research.
I would like to emphasize that the PhD experience was feasible and memorable
because of the opportunity to meet and work with various people. If it wasn’t for the
times spent drinking tea, talking to and joking with fellow students and staff, or learning
about cultures and collaborating with people across the world I would have overlooked
how exceptional and distinct each person is in this world. It so important to learn how to
work with different people and appreciate that chance to listen to their ideas, knowledge,
concerns, and joys. I want to thank Tom Thuis, Randy Ray, Dr. Nien-Yin Chang, Dr.
Kevin Rens, Dr. Rajaram, Jose Solis, Adam Kardos, Dr. Loren Cobb, Dr. Angie Hager,
Derek Chan, Dr. Rui, Liu, Devon, Krista Nordback, Brian Volmer for all their help
during my research and dissertation preparation. I thank Laasya Bhagavatula, Emani
Kumar, Ashish Rao Ghorpade of ICLEI-South Asia, Mr. Jayant Lakhlani of Lakhlani
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Associates, Mitesh Joshi and his family and Alpana Mitra and her family for making me
feel welcomed in Rajkot, India and giving me the honor of working with all of you while
doing the research in Rajkot. Additionally, I appreciate the feedback and commitment
that my committee members (Dr. Ross Corotis, Dr. Arunprakash Karunanithi, and Dr.
Yunping Xi) showed during defense. I would also like to thank the National Science
Foundation’s Integrative Graduate Education and Research Traineeship (IGERT Award
No. DGE-0654378) for funding my research.
Lastly, I thank my family, friends, and especially my parents. It is hard to explain
how much I appreciate the qualities of my parents because my parents mean a lot to me
and I want to say the right words. My mom is always forgiving, a great listener, and I
admire her for her ability to manage people and make people feel important. My dad is a
very intelligent man that enjoys the simple things in life (like working side by side with
his children), he gives valuable advice and I admire him for how hard he works. I am
able to achieve any goal because my parents have always been there pushing me along,
keeping me focused, and making me believe I have a purpose.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter
1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................1
1.1 Concrete and Urban Infrastructure.................................................................................1
1.1.1 Concrete Use ..............................................................................................................1
1.1.2 Concrete Infrastructure Is a Source of GHG Emissions ............................................3
1.2 Climate Change in Urban Areas ....................................................................................3
1.2.1 Flooding or Drought in Urban Areas ..........................................................................4
1.2.2 Extreme Temperatures in Urban Areas.......................................................................5
1.3 Concrete Infrastructure for GHG Mitigation and Climate Adaptation ..........................6
1.3.1 Pervious Concrete Past and Contemporary Research ................................................7
1.3.2 High Volume Fly Ash Concrete Research with a Focus on Thermal Properties ......9
1.3.3 Main Goal and Knowledge Gaps ..............................................................................13
1.4 Thesis Objectives .........................................................................................................16
1.5 Organization of Thesis .................................................................................................17
2. Case Study Location: The City of Rajkot India .............................................................19
2.1 Demographics, Population, and Climate .....................................................................19
2.2 Rajkot Construction and Concrete Infrastructure .......................................................21
2.2.1 Personal Account of Construction ...........................................................................22
2.2.2 Rajkot Concrete Infrastructure ..................................................................................25
2.3 Future GHG Mitigation and Climate Adaptation Goals ..............................................29
2.3.1 Stormwater/Rainwater Harvesting ............................................................................31
2.3.2 HVFA Concrete Road Project ..................................................................................32
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2.3.3 Collaboration between UC Denver, ICLEI South Asia
and Rajkot Municipal Corporation ..........................................................................34
3. Carbon Mitigation Through Concrete: An MFA-LCA Approach ................................36
3.1 Bottom-line: Cement and Concrete Manufacturing in India and the US .....................36
3.2 Life Cycle Assessment of Cement and Concrete in India ..........................................41
3.3 Understanding the Cement Production and Concrete Industry in India .....................44
3.3.1 Ready Mixed Concrete Industry in India ..................................................................48
3.3.2 Site Mixed Concrete in India ...................................................................................49
3.3.3 Indian Concrete Mixture Designs ............................................................................51
3.4 Cement Manufacturing Process in India .....................................................................52
3.4.1 Phases of Cement Clinker ........................................................................................54
3.4.2 Kilns .........................................................................................................................55
3.5 Energy Consumption within the Cement Industry ......................................................56
3.5.1 Energy Scenario in the Indian Cement Industry ......................................................57
3.5.2 Methods of Energy Efficiency .................................................................................58
3.6 Management, Energy Efficiency Ventures,
and Emission Trends for Indian Cement Companies .................................................62
3.6.1 Energy Efficiency and Embodied in Cement Manufacturing in India ....................63
3.6.2 Emission Trends in Cement Manufacturing in India ...............................................65
3.7 Materials, Fuels, and Emissions Associated with Cement and Concrete ...................70
3.7.1 Cement .....................................................................................................................70
3.7.1.1 Overall Result .......................................................................................................76
3.7.1.2 Company to Company Comparison ......................................................................77
3.7.1.3 Cementitious Materials .........................................................................................79
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