An Introduction to C++ Object Oriented Programming

191 Pages·1999·0.563 MB·English

by  Ian D. Chivers

An Introduction to
C++ and
Object Oriented Programming
Abstract
The aim of the notes is to provide an introduction to the C++ programming language and
object oriented programming. It is assumed that you know one programming language mod-
erately well.
Author: Ian D Chivers
Email: [email protected]
Version: 6.1
Date: August 1999
© Ian D Chivers. Permission to copy all or part of this work is granted, provided that the
copies are not made or distributed for resale (except a nominal copy fee may be charged),
and provided that the Author, Copyright, & No Warranty sections are retained verbatim and
are displayed conspicuously. If anyone needs other permissions that aren't covered by the
above, please contact the author.
No Warranty: this work is provided on an as is basis. The author provides no warranty
whatsoever, either express or implied, regarding the work, including warranties with respect
to its merchantability or fitness for any particular purpose.
All comments welcome.
Contents 3
Table of Contents
1 Overview...............................................................................................................14
1.1 Aims............................................................................................................................14
1.2 Assumptions...............................................................................................................14
1.3 Additional Material and Recommended Sources......................................................14
1.4 Compilers and Standards............................................................................................15
1.4.1 Contents of the standard...................................................................................................16
1.5 Old and New...............................................................................................................17
1.6 Coda............................................................................................................................17
1.7 Course Details............................................................................................................18
1.8 Problems.....................................................................................................................18
2 An Introduction to Programming Languages and Object Oriented Pro-
gramming...................................................................................................................20
2.1 Fortran 66, 1966.........................................................................................................20
2.2 Pascal, 1975, ANSI & BSI 1982, ISO 1983, Extended Pascal 1991?......................20
2.3 Fortran 77, 1978.........................................................................................................21
2.4 C, K&R 1978, Standard 1989....................................................................................21
2.5 Modula 2, 1982, Standard 1996?...............................................................................21
2.6 Ada, ISO 8652: 1987.................................................................................................21
2.7 C++, 1986, Standard November 1997.......................................................................21
2.8 Oberon 2, Late 1980's, early 1990's...........................................................................22
2.9 Fortran 90, 1991.........................................................................................................22
2.10 Eiffel, 1988.................................................................................................................22
2.11 Ada, ISO 8652: 1995.................................................................................................22
2.12 Java.............................................................................................................................23
2.13 Visual Basic................................................................................................................23
2.14 Language Comparison................................................................................................23
2.15 Language Features......................................................................................................25
2.15.1 Independent Compilation.................................................................................................25
2.15.2 Separate Compilation.......................................................................................................25
2.15.3 Concrete Data Types........................................................................................................25
2.15.4 Abstract Data Types.........................................................................................................25
2.15.5 Dynamic arrays.................................................................................................................25
2.15.6 Numeric and General Polymorphism...............................................................................25
2.15.7 Modules ...........................................................................................................................26
2.15.8 Pointers and References...................................................................................................26
2.15.9 Procedure Variables.........................................................................................................26
2.15.10 Inheritance........................................................................................................................26
2.15.11 Dynamic Binding.............................................................................................................26
2.15.12 Operator Overloading.......................................................................................................26
2.15.13 Threads/Multitasking........................................................................................................26
2.15.14 Exception Handling..........................................................................................................27
2.16 Some Important Milestones in Program Language Development............................27
2.16.1 Structured Programming..................................................................................................27
2.16.2 Stepwise Refinement........................................................................................................27
2.16.3 Data Structuring, Concrete vs Abstract Data Types........................................................27
2.16.4 Information Hiding – Modules........................................................................................27
2.17 Terminology of Object Oriented Programming.........................................................27
2.18 Parallel Developments................................................................................................27
2.18.1 Parallel Fortran – Fortran 95, Fortran 2000, SMP, MPI, HPF.......................................28
2.18.2 Parallel C++......................................................................................................................28
2.19 Object Oriented Programming...................................................................................28
2.20 Object Oriented Languages........................................................................................29
2.20.1 Simula – 1967..................................................................................................................29
2.20.2 Smalltalk – 1978..............................................................................................................29
2.20.3 C++...................................................................................................................................29
2.20.4 Eiffel.................................................................................................................................29
2.20.5 Oberon 2...........................................................................................................................29
2.20.6 Ada 95..............................................................................................................................30
2.20.7 Java...................................................................................................................................30
2.21 Other Languages.........................................................................................................31
4 Contents
2.21.1 Fortran 90.........................................................................................................................31
2.21.2 Modula 2...........................................................................................................................31
2.22 The OO Approach......................................................................................................31
2.22.1 Meyer's Approach............................................................................................................31
2.22.2 Rumbaugh et al................................................................................................................31
2.22.3 Practical Steps..................................................................................................................32
2.23 Simple Example..........................................................................................................32
2.24 Other Developments...................................................................................................33
2.24.1 Development Environments.............................................................................................33
2.24.2 Graphical Development Tools.........................................................................................34
2.24.3 Software Components......................................................................................................34
2.24.3.1 COM, OLE, ActiveX.................................................................................................34
2.24.3.2 JavaBeans...................................................................................................................35
2.25 Coda............................................................................................................................35
2.26 Bibliography...............................................................................................................36
2.27 Problems.....................................................................................................................41
3 An Introduction to C++......................................................................................44
3.1 Hello World – Old C style.........................................................................................44
3.2 Hello World – New standard C++ style....................................................................44
3.3 Simple text i/o using C style arrays of char..............................................................45
3.4 Simple text i/o using C++ style strings.....................................................................46
3.5 Simple numeric i/o.....................................................................................................46
3.6 Some C++ Rules and Terminology...........................................................................47
3.7 Good Programming Guidelines..................................................................................48
3.8 C++ for C Programmers.............................................................................................48
3.8.1 Macros..............................................................................................................................48
3.8.2 Malloc...............................................................................................................................48
3.8.3 Pointers.............................................................................................................................48
3.8.4 Arrays and C style strings................................................................................................48
3.9 C++ Character Set......................................................................................................48
3.10 Summary.....................................................................................................................49
3.11 Key Concepts..............................................................................................................49
3.11.1 Basic structure of a C++ program...................................................................................49
3.11.2 Indentation........................................................................................................................49
3.11.3 Data Types........................................................................................................................49
3.12 Bibliography...............................................................................................................50
3.13 Problems.....................................................................................................................50
4 Arithmetic and Expressions in C++..................................................................54
4.1 Basic numeric types...................................................................................................54
4.2 Integer Numeric Type................................................................................................54
4.2.1 Variations on a theme - signed, unsigned........................................................................54
4.3 Real Numeric Type....................................................................................................55
4.4 Numeric Type Conversion Rules...............................................................................55
4.5 Complex?....................................................................................................................56
4.6 const............................................................................................................................56
4.7 Character Data as a form of Integer Data..................................................................56
4.8 Operators and Expression Evaluation........................................................................57
4.8.1 Expression Evaluation......................................................................................................57
4.8.2 Sequence Points................................................................................................................57
4.8.3 Lvalue and Rvalue............................................................................................................57
4.8.4 Operators, Precedence and Associativity.........................................................................57
4.8.4.1 :: [scope resolution] class_name :: member..............................................................59
4.8.4.2 :: [global] :: name......................................................................................................59
4.8.4.3 . [member selection] object.member.........................................................................59
4.8.4.4 -> [member selection] pointer -> member................................................................59
4.8.4.5 [] [subscripting] pointer [expr]..................................................................................59
4.8.4.6 () [function call] expr (expr_list)...............................................................................59
4.8.4.7 () [value construction] type(expr_list).......................................................................59
4.8.4.8 ++ [post increment] lvalue ++...................................................................................59
4.8.4.9 — [post decrement] lvalue —...................................................................................59
4.8.4.10 sizeof [size of object] sizeof expr.............................................................................59
4.8.4.11 sizeof [size of type] sizeof (type)..............................................................................59
Contents 5
4.8.4.12 ++ [pre increment] ++ lvalue....................................................................................59
4.8.4.13 — [pre decrement] — lvalue.....................................................................................60
4.8.4.14 ~ [complement] ~ expr..............................................................................................60
4.8.4.15 ! [not] ! expr..............................................................................................................60
4.8.4.16 - [unary minus] - expr................................................................................................60
4.8.4.17 + [unary plus] + expr.................................................................................................60
4.8.4.18 & [address of] & expr................................................................................................60
4.8.4.19 * [dereference] * expr................................................................................................60
4.8.4.20 new [create] new type................................................................................................60
4.8.4.21 delete [destroy] delete pointer...................................................................................60
4.8.4.22 delete[] [destroy array] delete [] pointer...................................................................60
4.8.4.23 () [cast] (type) expr....................................................................................................60
4.8.4.24 .* [member selection] object.* pointer_to_member..................................................60
4.8.4.25 ->* [member selection] pointer -> * pointer_to_member........................................60
4.8.4.26 * [multiply] expr * expr............................................................................................60
4.8.4.27 / [divide] expr / expt..................................................................................................60
4.8.4.28 % [modulo or remainder] expr % expr.....................................................................61
4.8.4.29 + [plus] expr + expr...................................................................................................61
4.8.4.30 - [minus] expr - expr..................................................................................................61
4.8.4.31 << [shift left] expr << expr.......................................................................................61
4.8.4.32 >> [shift right] expr >> expr.....................................................................................61
4.8.4.33 < [less than] expr < expr...........................................................................................61
4.8.4.34 <= [less than or equal] expr <= expr........................................................................61
4.8.4.35 > [greater than] expr > expr......................................................................................61
4.8.4.36 >= [greater than or equal] expr >= expr...................................................................61
4.8.4.37 == [equal] expr == expr............................................................................................61
4.8.4.38 != [not equal] expr != expr........................................................................................61
4.8.4.39 & [bitwise AND] expr & expr..................................................................................61
4.8.4.40 ^ [bitwise exclusive OR] expr ^ expr........................................................................61
4.8.4.41 | [bitwise inclusive OR] expr | expr..........................................................................61
4.8.4.42 && [logical AND] expr && expr.............................................................................61
4.8.4.43 || [logical inclusive OR] expr || expr.........................................................................61
4.8.4.44 ?: [conditional expression] expr ? expr : expr..........................................................62
4.8.4.45 = [conventional assignment] lvalue = expr...............................................................62
4.8.4.46 *= [multiply and assign] lvalue *= expr...................................................................62
4.8.4.47 /= [divide and assign] lvalue /= expr........................................................................62
4.8.4.48 %= [modulo and assign] lvalue %= expr..................................................................62
4.8.4.49 += [add and assign] lvalue += expr..........................................................................62
4.8.4.50 -= [subtract and assign] lvalue -= expr.....................................................................62
4.8.4.51 <<= [shift left and assign] lvalue <<= expr..............................................................62
4.8.4.52 >>= [shift right and assign] lvalue >>= expr............................................................62
4.8.4.53 &= [AND and assign] lvalue &= expr......................................................................62
4.8.4.54 |= [inclusive OR and assign] lvalue |= expr..............................................................62
4.8.4.55 ^= [exclusive OR and assign] lvalue ^= expr...........................................................62
4.8.4.56 throw [throw exception] throw expr..........................................................................62
4.8.4.57 , [comma] expr , expr................................................................................................62
4.9 Expression Examples..................................................................................................62
4.10 Summary.....................................................................................................................64
4.11 Key Concepts..............................................................................................................65
4.11.1 Numeric Data Types........................................................................................................65
4.11.1.1 Integer........................................................................................................................65
4.11.1.2 Real............................................................................................................................65
4.11.1.3 Complex – supported via <complex>.......................................................................65
4.11.1.4 Character Data as Numeric Data...............................................................................65
4.11.2 Constants – use the const attribute..................................................................................65
4.11.3 Operators – 45 but effectively 57 with variants..............................................................65
4.11.4 Expressions – the order of expression evaluation is often undefined.............................65
4.12 Problems.....................................................................................................................65
5 Strings and other Data Types............................................................................68
5.1 Character Data or Strings...........................................................................................68
5.1.1 C Style strings..................................................................................................................68
5.1.1.1 Example 1..................................................................................................................68
5.1.1.2 Example 2..................................................................................................................68
5.1.1.3 strcpy(s1,s2)...............................................................................................................69
6 Contents
5.1.1.4 strcat(s1,s2)................................................................................................................69
5.1.1.5 strcmp(s1,s2)..............................................................................................................69
5.1.1.6 strlen(s).......................................................................................................................69
5.1.1.7 strchr(s,c)....................................................................................................................69
5.1.2 C++ Style strings – <string>............................................................................................69
5.1.2.1 assignment..................................................................................................................69
5.1.2.2 character access..........................................................................................................69
5.1.2.3 comparison.................................................................................................................70
5.1.2.4 concatenation.............................................................................................................70
5.1.2.5 constructors................................................................................................................70
5.1.2.6 i/o...............................................................................................................................70
5.1.2.7 insertion......................................................................................................................70
5.1.2.8 iterators.......................................................................................................................70
5.1.2.9 length..........................................................................................................................70
5.1.2.10 removal.......................................................................................................................70
5.1.2.11 replacement................................................................................................................70
5.1.2.12 resize..........................................................................................................................70
5.1.2.13 search.........................................................................................................................70
5.1.2.14 Example 3..................................................................................................................71
5.1.3 Guidelines for use............................................................................................................71
5.2 Boolean or Logical Data............................................................................................71
5.3 Reference Variables....................................................................................................71
5.4 Enumeration Types.....................................................................................................72
5.5 Type Conversion........................................................................................................73
5.6 Scope...........................................................................................................................73
5.7 Void............................................................................................................................74
5.8 Memory and C++.......................................................................................................74
5.9 Summary.....................................................................................................................74
5.10 Key Concepts..............................................................................................................74
5.10.1 Data Types........................................................................................................................74
5.10.1.1 Sequence of characters as an array of char...............................................................74
5.10.1.2 Seqence of characters as a string...............................................................................74
5.10.1.3 Logical or boolean.....................................................................................................74
5.10.1.4 Reference Variable....................................................................................................74
5.10.1.5 Enumerated Types.....................................................................................................74
5.10.1.6 Void............................................................................................................................74
5.10.1.7 Type Conversion........................................................................................................74
5.10.2 Scope................................................................................................................................74
5.10.3 Memory............................................................................................................................74
5.11 Problems.....................................................................................................................75
6 Arrays, Vectors and Valarrays in C++.............................................................78
6.1 Old C Style arrays......................................................................................................78
6.1.1 One d example – Monthly Rainfall.................................................................................78
6.1.2 One d array – People's Weights.......................................................................................79
6.1.3 Two d Array – latitude and longitude.............................................................................79
6.1.4 Simple physics – voltage example...................................................................................80
6.1.5 Time Zone Example.........................................................................................................80
6.1.6 Array Initialisation...........................................................................................................81
6.1.7 Whole Array Manipulation..............................................................................................81
6.2 Vectors........................................................................................................................81
6.2.1 Example 1.........................................................................................................................81
6.2.2 Example 2 – subscript checking......................................................................................82
6.2.3 Example 3 – subscript checking with try/catch ..............................................................83
6.2.4 Example 4 – whole array assignment..............................................................................83
6.3 Valarrays.....................................................................................................................84
6.3.1 Example 1.........................................................................................................................84
6.4 Array Element Ordering in C++................................................................................85
6.5 Summary.....................................................................................................................85
6.6 Key Concepts..............................................................................................................85
6.6.1 Data Types........................................................................................................................85
6.6.1.1 array...........................................................................................................................85
6.6.1.2 vector..........................................................................................................................85
6.6.1.3 valarray.......................................................................................................................86
Contents 7
6.6.1.4 Associated control structure – for loop.....................................................................86
6.7 Problems.....................................................................................................................86
7 Control Structures...............................................................................................88
7.1 Compound Statement or Block..................................................................................88
7.2 Expression...................................................................................................................88
7.3 Boolean.......................................................................................................................88
7.4 if (expression) statement............................................................................................88
7.4.1 Example 1.........................................................................................................................88
7.4.2 Example 2.........................................................................................................................88
7.5 if (expression) statement; else statement;..................................................................89
7.5.1 Example 1.........................................................................................................................89
7.5.2 Example 2.........................................................................................................................89
7.6 switch (expression) statement....................................................................................89
7.6.1 Example 1.........................................................................................................................89
7.7 while (expression) statement......................................................................................90
7.7.1 Example 1.........................................................................................................................90
7.8 do statement while (expression);................................................................................90
7.8.1 Example 1.........................................................................................................................90
7.9 for (init-statement;expression 1; expression 2) statement.........................................91
7.9.1 Example 1.........................................................................................................................91
7.9.2 Example 2.........................................................................................................................92
7.10 break, continue, goto statements................................................................................92
7.11 Summary.....................................................................................................................92
7.12 Key Concepts..............................................................................................................93
7.12.1 logical expressions...........................................................................................................93
7.12.2 logical and relational operators........................................................................................93
7.12.3 A block of statements – { .;.;.}........................................................................................93
7.12.4 Control Statements...........................................................................................................93
7.12.4.1 the if expression statement........................................................................................93
7.12.4.2 the if expression statement else statement................................................................93
7.12.4.3 the switch statement...................................................................................................93
7.12.4.4 while expression statement........................................................................................93
7.12.4.5 do statement while expression...................................................................................93
7.12.4.6 the for () statement....................................................................................................93
7.12.4.7 break statement..........................................................................................................93
7.12.4.8 continue statement.....................................................................................................93
7.12.4.9 goto statement............................................................................................................93
7.13 Problems.....................................................................................................................93
7.14 Bibliography...............................................................................................................95
8 Pointers.................................................................................................................98
8.1 Example 1: Basic Pointer Usage................................................................................98
8.2 Example 2: Arrays and Pointers................................................................................99
8.3 Example 3: Pointers and Sentinels.............................................................................99
8.4 Example 4: Indiscriminate Pointer Usage................................................................100
8.5 Summary...................................................................................................................101
8.6 Key Concepts............................................................................................................101
8.6.1 * – pointer to..................................................................................................................101
8.6.2 & – address of................................................................................................................101
8.6.3 arrays and pointers.........................................................................................................101
8.7 Problems...................................................................................................................101
9 Functions ............................................................................................................104
9.1 Predefined Functions................................................................................................104
9.1.1 Trigonometric function usage........................................................................................104
9.1.2 Passing arguments of numeric type to standard maths functions.................................104
9.1.3 Functions in <maths.h>..................................................................................................105
9.2 User Defined Functions............................................................................................105
9.2.1 One d array as argument and one function....................................................................105
9.2.2 One function, vector as argument..................................................................................105
9.2.3 3 functions, one d array as argument.............................................................................106
9.2.4 Using 2d arrays as arguments........................................................................................107
9.2.5 Passing 2d dynamic arrays as arguments......................................................................108
9.2.6 Passing functions as arguments to other functions and procedure variables................109
8 Contents
9.3 Function Arguments.................................................................................................111
9.3.1 Swapping arguments – passing by address....................................................................111
9.3.2 Swapping arguments – passing by reference.................................................................111
9.3.3 Mayhem..........................................................................................................................112
9.4 C++ Standard Functions...........................................................................................112
9.5 Summary...................................................................................................................113
9.6 Key Concepts............................................................................................................113
9.6.1 Predefined functions.......................................................................................................113
9.6.2 User Defined functions..................................................................................................113
9.6.3 Basic syntax....................................................................................................................113
9.6.4 Parameter Passing...........................................................................................................113
9.6.4.1 Pass by value – copy made.....................................................................................113
9.6.4.2 Array as parameter – base address used.................................................................113
9.6.4.3 Pass by reference.....................................................................................................114
9.6.4.4 Pass by const reference............................................................................................114
9.7 Problems...................................................................................................................114
10 Classes – User Defined Data Types.................................................................116
10.1 Concrete Data Types................................................................................................116
10.1.1 Dates...............................................................................................................................116
10.1.2 Addresses........................................................................................................................117
10.1.3 Nested Data Types.........................................................................................................118
10.1.4 Reading user input using a singly linked list................................................................119
10.1.5 Reading user input using C++ style strings...................................................................120
10.2 Abstract Data Types.................................................................................................120
10.2.1 Dates...............................................................................................................................120
10.2.2 Addresses........................................................................................................................122
10.3 Sphere class..............................................................................................................124
10.3.1 translate_with_copy_sphere...........................................................................................127
10.3.2 translate_by_reference_sphere.......................................................................................127
10.3.3 translate_by_pointer_sphere...........................................................................................127
10.4 Constructors and Destructors...................................................................................128
10.4.1 Constructor/Destructor Example 1.................................................................................128
10.4.2 Constructor/Destructor Example 2.................................................................................129
10.4.3 Constructor/Destructor Example 3.................................................................................131
10.4.4 Constructor/Destructor Example 4.................................................................................132
10.4.5 Constructor/Destructor Example 5.................................................................................133
10.4.6 Constructor/Destructor Example 6.................................................................................136
10.4.7 Constructor/Destructor Recommendations....................................................................138
10.4.8 Memory Allocation and Deallocation – Leakage and Garbage Collection .................138
10.5 The C++ object Model – taken from the standard..................................................138
10.6 Summary...................................................................................................................139
10.7 Key Concepts............................................................................................................139
10.7.1 Concrete data types........................................................................................................139
10.7.1.1 Data public...............................................................................................................139
10.7.1.2 Functions public.......................................................................................................139
10.7.2 Abstract data types.........................................................................................................139
10.7.2.1 Data Private..............................................................................................................139
10.7.2.2 Functions public.......................................................................................................139
10.7.3 Constructors and Destructors.........................................................................................139
10.7.3.1 Simple constructor...................................................................................................139
10.7.3.2 Copy constructor......................................................................................................139
10.7.3.3 Overload assignment operator.................................................................................139
10.7.3.4 Destructor.................................................................................................................139
10.7.4 Basic Class Syntax.........................................................................................................139
10.8 Problems...................................................................................................................139
10.9 Bibliography.............................................................................................................140
11 Templates............................................................................................................142
11.1 Example 1 – Simple minimum................................................................................142
11.2 Example 2 – Hoare's Quicksort...............................................................................143
11.3 Other Issues..............................................................................................................144
11.4 Summary...................................................................................................................144
11.5 Key Concepts............................................................................................................144
Contents 9
11.5.1 Basic Syntax Example....................................................................................................144
11.6 Problems...................................................................................................................145
12 Operator and Function Overloading...............................................................148
12.1 Operator Overloading...............................................................................................148
12.1.1 Unary and Binary Operators..........................................................................................148
12.1.2 Operator Overloading 1: + , - , =...............................................................................149
12.1.3 Operator Overloading 2: [].............................................................................................153
12.1.4 Operator Overloading 3: ().............................................................................................153
12.1.5 Operator Overloading 4: << and >>.............................................................................154
12.1.6 Guidelines for Operator Overloading............................................................................155
12.2 Function Overloading...............................................................................................156
12.2.1 Overload Resolution.......................................................................................................156
12.2.2 Exact Matching...............................................................................................................156
12.2.3 Matching through promotion.........................................................................................158
12.2.4 Matching through Standard Conversion........................................................................158
12.2.5 Matching through User Defined Conversion.................................................................159
12.2.6 Guidelines for Function Overloading............................................................................160
12.3 Key Concepts............................................................................................................160
12.3.1 Function Overloading.....................................................................................................160
12.3.1.1 Functions distinguished by signature......................................................................160
12.3.2 Operator Overloading.....................................................................................................160
12.3.2.1 Unary operators........................................................................................................160
12.3.2.2 Binary operators.......................................................................................................160
12.3.2.3 Commutivity............................................................................................................160
12.4 Problems...................................................................................................................160
13 Virtual Functions and Abstract Data Types..................................................162
13.1 Virtual Function Example 1.....................................................................................162
13.2 Virtual Function Example 2.....................................................................................164
13.3 Summary...................................................................................................................166
13.4 Key Concepts............................................................................................................167
13.4.1 Virtual function..............................................................................................................167
13.4.2 Pure Virtual Function.....................................................................................................167
13.4.3 Private.............................................................................................................................167
13.4.4 Protected.........................................................................................................................167
13.4.5 Public..............................................................................................................................167
13.5 Problems...................................................................................................................167
14 Complete OO Example.....................................................................................170
14.1 Range Checked Array..............................................................................................170
14.1.1 Notes...............................................................................................................................172
14.1.1.1 Class array................................................................................................................172
14.1.1.2 Class checked_array................................................................................................172
14.2 Summary...................................................................................................................173
14.3 Where do I go next?.................................................................................................173
14.4 Problems...................................................................................................................173
15 Files and i/o........................................................................................................176
15.1 Numeric i/o: width and precision.............................................................................176
15.2 Numeric i/o: setting justification..............................................................................176
15.3 Numeric i/o: scientific notation................................................................................176
15.4 Numeric i/o: alternate number bases, octal and hexadecimal.................................177
15.5 File i/o: picking up the names from the command line..........................................177
15.6 File i/o: hard coded file names in constructors.......................................................178
15.7 File i/o: strings passed as arguments to constructors..............................................178
15.8 Summary...................................................................................................................178
15.9 Key Concepts............................................................................................................179
15.9.1 Setting the width............................................................................................................179
15.9.2 Setting the precision.......................................................................................................179
15.9.3 Justification.....................................................................................................................179
15.9.4 Reading from files..........................................................................................................179
15.9.5 Writing to files...............................................................................................................179
15.9.6 Picking up files from the command line.......................................................................179
15.9.7 Alternate number bases for numeric output..................................................................179
15.9.7.1 octal..........................................................................................................................179
10 Contents
15.9.7.2 decimal.....................................................................................................................179
15.9.7.3 hexadecimal.............................................................................................................179
15.10 Problems...................................................................................................................179
16 Errors and Exception Handling.......................................................................182
16.1 Linked List – Pascal.................................................................................................182
16.2 Linked List – Fortran 90..........................................................................................183
16.3 Linked List – C++, old C syntax.............................................................................183
16.4 Discussion.................................................................................................................185
16.5 Example 1 – Basic Syntax.......................................................................................185
16.6 Example 2 – Exception raised in a function............................................................185
16.7 Example 3 – Function with Exception Specification..............................................186
16.8 Example 5 – Exceptions and constructors and destructors.....................................188
16.9 Key Concepts............................................................................................................188
16.9.1 Basic Syntax...................................................................................................................188
16.10 Problems...................................................................................................................188
17 The Standard Template Library.....................................................................190
17.1 Library Organisation................................................................................................190
17.1.1 Some basic terminology.................................................................................................190
17.2 Containers.................................................................................................................190
17.2.1 vector..............................................................................................................................190
17.2.2 list...................................................................................................................................191
17.2.3 queue...............................................................................................................................191
17.2.4 stack................................................................................................................................191
17.2.5 deque...............................................................................................................................192
17.2.6 map, multimap................................................................................................................192
17.2.7 set, bitset, multiset..........................................................................................................192
17.3 Iterators.....................................................................................................................192
17.4 Miscellaneous Operations........................................................................................192
17.5 Constructors..............................................................................................................193
17.6 Algorithms................................................................................................................193
17.6.1 Non modifying sequence operations..............................................................................193
17.6.2 Modifying sequence operations.....................................................................................193
17.6.3 Sorted sequences............................................................................................................194
17.6.4 Set algorithms.................................................................................................................194
17.6.5 Heap operations..............................................................................................................195
17.6.6 Minimum and maximum................................................................................................195
17.6.7 Permutations...................................................................................................................195
17.7 Strings.......................................................................................................................195
17.8 Numerics...................................................................................................................195
17.8.1 complex..........................................................................................................................196
17.8.2 valarray...........................................................................................................................196
17.8.3 numeric...........................................................................................................................196
17.9 Complete list of C++ template classes....................................................................197
17.10 Useful Sources..........................................................................................................197
17.11 Summary...................................................................................................................197
17.12 Problems...................................................................................................................197
18 Miscellanea.........................................................................................................200
18.1 C++ as a Programming Language...........................................................................200
18.2 The Standard.............................................................................................................200
18.3 C++ Standard Definitions.........................................................................................201
18.3.0.1 argument...................................................................................................................201
18.3.0.2 dynamic type............................................................................................................201
18.3.0.3 implementation defined behaviour..........................................................................201
18.3.0.4 implementation limits..............................................................................................201
18.3.0.5 multibyte character..................................................................................................201
18.3.0.6 parameter..................................................................................................................201
18.3.0.7 signature...................................................................................................................201
18.3.0.8 static type.................................................................................................................201
18.3.0.9 undefined behaviour................................................................................................201
18.3.1 C++ Implementation Options: Free vs Hosted..............................................................202
18.3.2 The C++ Memory Model, taken from the standard......................................................202
Contents 11
18.4 Coda..........................................................................................................................202