A History of Philosophy [Vol VII] : modern philosophy : from the post-Kantian idealists to Marx, Kierkegaard, and Nietzsche

257 Pages·1994·8.53 MB·English

by  Frederick Charles Copleston

A HISTORY
OF
PHILOSOPHY
A HISTORY
OF
A HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY by Frederick Copleston, S.J.
VOLUME I: GREECE AND ROME
From the Pre-Socratics to Plotinus PHILOSOPHY
VOLUME II: MEDIEVAL PHILOSOPHY
From Augustine to Duns Scotus
VOLUME III: LATE MEDIEVAL AND RENAISSANCE PHILOSOPHY
Ockham, Francis Bacon, and the Beginning of the Modern World
VOLUME VII
VOLUME IV: MODERN PHILOSOPHY
From Descartes to Leibniz
Modern Philosophy: From
VOLUME V: MODERN PHILOSOPHY
The British Philosophers from Hobbes to Hume
VOLUME VI: MODERN PHILOSOPHY the Post-Kantian Idealists
From the French Enlightenment to Kant
VOLUME VII: MODERN PHILOSOPHY to Marx, Kierkegaard, and
From the Post-Kantian Idealists to Marx, Kierkegaard, and Nietzsche
VOLUME VIII: MODERN PHILOSOPHY
Empiricism, Idealism, and Pragmatism in Britain and America Nietzsche
VOLUME IX: MODERN PHILOSOPHY
From the French Revolution to Sartre, Camus, and Levi-Strauss
Frederick Copleston, S.J.
~,
==
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CONTENTS
Pag'
PREFACE ix
AN IMAGE BOOK
PART I
PUBLISHED BY DOUBLEDAY
POST-KANTIAN IDEALIST SYSTEMS
a division of Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group, Inc.
1540 Broadway, New York, New York 10036
1. INTRODUCTION I
Preliminary remarks-Kant's philosophy and idealist meta
IMAGE, DOUBLEDAY, and the portrayal of a deer drinking from a stream are
physics--The meaning of idealism, its insistence on system and
trademarks of Doubleday, a division of Bantam Doubleday Dell its confidence in the power and scope of philosophy-The
Publishing Group, Inc. idealists and theology-The romantic movement and German
idealism-The difficulty in fulfilling the idealist programme
The anthropomorphic element in German idealism-Idealist
First Image Books edition of Volume VII of A History of Philosophy published
philosophies of man.
1965 by special arrangement with The Newman Press and Burns & Oates, Ltd.
II. FICHTE (I) 32
This Image edition published March 1994.
Life and writings--On looking for the fundamental principle of
philosophy; the choice between idealism and dogmatism-The
pure ego and intellectual intuition-Comments on the theory
De Licentia Superiomm Ordinis: John Cobentry, S.J., Praep. Provo Angliae
of the pure ego; phenomenology of consciousness and idealist
Nihil Obstat: T. Gornall, S.J., Censor Deputatus metaphysics-The three fundamental principles of philosophy
-Explanatory comments on Fichte's dialectical method-The
Imprimatur: Franciscus, Archiepiscopus Birmingamiensis Birmingamiae die 26a theory of science and formal logic-The general idea of the two
deductions of consciousness--The theoretical deduction-The
Julii 1962
practical deduction-Comments on Fichte's deduction of
consciousness.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
III. FICHTE (2) 59
Copleston, Frederick Charles.
Introductory remarks--The common moral consciousness and
A history of philosophy. the science of ethics-Man's moral nature-The supreme
Includes bibliographical references and indexes. principle of morality and the formal condition of the morality of
Contents: v.!. Greece and Rome-[etc.]- actions-Conscience as an unerring guide-The philosophical
application of the formal moral law-The idea of moral vocation
v. 7. From the post-Kantian idealists to Marx,
and Fichte's general vision of reality-A community of selves
Kierkegaard, and Nietzsche-v. 8. Empiricism, idealism, in a world as a condition of self-consciousness-The principle or
and pragmatism in Britain and America-v. 9. From the rule of right-The deduction and nature of the State-The
French Revolution to Sartre, Camus, and Levi-Strauss. closed commercial State-Fichte and nationalism.
1. Philosophy-History. I. Title.
B72.C62 1993 190 92-34997 IV. FICHTE (3)
Fichte's early ideas on religion-God in the first version of the
ISBN 0-385-47044-4
theory of science-The charge of atheism and Fichte's reply
Volume VII copyright © 1963 by Frederick Copleston The infinite Will in The Vocation of Man-The development of
the philosophy of Being. I80I-5-The Doctrine of Religion
All Rights Reserved Later writings--Explanatory and critical comments on Fichte's
philosophy of Being.
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
1 3 5 7 9 10 8 6 4 2 V. SCHELLING (I) 94
Life and writings--The successive phases in Schelling's thought
-Early writings and the influence of Fichte.
v
vi CONTENTS CONTENTS vii
Chapter Page Chapter Page
VI. SCHELLING (2) 105 XIV. SCHOPENHAUER (2) 277
The possibility and metaphysical grounds of a philosophy of Aesthetic contemplation as a temporary escape from the
Nature-The general outlines of Schelling's philosophy of slavery of the Will-The particular fine arts-Virtue and
Nature-The system of transcendental idealism-The philo- renunciation: the way of salvation-Schopenhauer and meta-
sophy of art-The Absolute as identity. physical idealism-The general influence of Schopenhjluer-
Notes on Eduard von Hartmann's development of Schopen-
VII. SCHELLING (3) 126 hauer's philosophy.
The idea of the cosmic Fall-Personality and freedom in man .
and God; good and evil-The distinction between .negative and XV. THE TRANSFORMATION OF IDEALISM (1) 293
positive philosophy-Mythology and. ~ev.elatJon-General Introductory remarks-Feuerbach and the transformation of
remarks on Schelling-Notes on Schelling s mfluence and on theology into anthropology-Ruge's criticism of the Hegelian
some kindred thinkers. attitude to history-Stirner's philosophy of the ego.
VIII. SCHLEIERMACHER 149 XVI. THE TRANSFORMATION OF IDEALISM (2) 305
Life and writings-The basic reli~ious e?,perience and. its Introductory remarks-The lives and writings of Marx and
interpretation-The moral and religIOUS life of man-Fmal
Engels and the development of their thought-Materialism-
remarks.
Dialectical materialism-The materialist conception of history
-Comments on the thought of Marx and Engels.
IX. HEGEL (x) 159
Life and writings-Early theological writings-Hegel's relations XVII. KIERKEGAARD 335
to Fichte and Schelling-The life of the Absolute and the
nature of philosophy-The phenomenology of consciousness. Introductory remarks-Life and writings-The individual and
the crowd-The dialectic of the stages and truth as subjectivity
X. HEGEL (2) x89 -oTf Khiee rikdeegaa oafr de.x istence-The concept of dread-The influence
The logic of Hegel-The ontological status of the .Idea or
Absolute in itself and the transition to Nature-The phllosophy
of Nature-The Absolute as Spirit: subjective Spirit-The PART III
concept of right-Morality-The family and civil society-The
LATER CURRENTS OF THOUGHT
State-Explanatory comments on Hegel's idea of political
philosophy-The function of war-Philosophy of history-
XVIII. NON-DIALECTICAL MATERIALISM 352
Some comments on Hegel's philosophy of history.
Introductory remarks-The first phase of the materialist
XI. HEGEL (3) 226 movement-Lange's criticism of materialism-Haeckel's
monism-Ostwald's energeticism-Empirio-criticism con-
The sphere of absolute Spirit-T~e philosophy of. ~rt-The sidered as an attempt to overcome the opposition between
philosophy of religion-:-The relation J;>etween re~lglOn and materialism and idealism.
philosophy-Hegel's philosophy .o~ ~he history of.phllos?phy-
The influence of Hegel and the diVISion between nght-wmg and
left-wing Hegelians. XIX. THE NEO-KANTIAN MOVEMENT 361
Introductory remarks-The Marburg School-The School of
Baden-The pragmatist tendency-E, Cassirer; concluding
PART II observations-Some notes on Dilthey.
THE REACTION AGAINST METAPHYSICAL IDEALISM
XX. THE REVIVAL OF METAPHYSICS 374
XII. EARLIER OPPONENTS AND CRITICS 248 Remarks on inductive metaphysics-Fechner's inductive
metaphysics-The teleological idealism of Lotze-Wundt and
Fries and his disciples-The realism of Herbart-Beneke and
the relation between science and philosophy-The vitalism of
psychology as the fundamental science-The logic of Bolzano- Driesch-Eucken's activism-Appropriation of the past:
Weisse and I. H. Fichte as critics of Hegel. Trendelenburg and Greek thought; the revival of Thomism.
XIII. SCHOPENHAUER (x) 261 XXI. NIETZSCHE (x) 390
Life and writings-Schopenhauer's .doctorate dissertation-
The world as Idea-The biological function of concepts and the Life and writings-The phases of Nietzsche's thought:as
'masks'-Nietzsche's early writings and the critique of con-
possibility of metaphysics-Th.e world a.s ~he manifestati?~ of
the Will to live-Metaphysical pessimism-Some cntlcal temporary culture-The critique of morals-Atheism and its
comments. consequences.
viii CONTENTS
Chapter Pags
XXII. NIETZSCHE (2) 407
The hypothesis of the Will to Power-The Will to Power as PREFACE
manifested in knowledge; Nietzsche's view of truth-The Will
to Power in Nature and man-Superman and the order of rank
-'The theory of the eternal recurrence-Comments on As Volume VI of this History oj Philosophy ended with Kant, the
Nietzsche's philosophy. natural procedure was to open the present volume with a discussion
of post-Kantian German idealism. I might then have turned to the
XXIII. RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT 421
philosophy of the first part of the nineteenth century in France and
Some questions arising out of nineteenth-century German
philosophy-The positivist answer-The philosophy of Great Britain. But on reflection it seemed to me that nineteenth
existence-The rise of phenomenology; Brentano, Meinong,
century German philosophy could reasonably be treated on its own,
Husserl, the widespread use of phenomenological analysis
Return to ontology; N. Hartmann-The metaphysics of and that this would confer on the volume a greater unity than
Being; Heidegger, the Thomists-Concluding reflections.
would otherwise be possible. And in point of fact the only non
German -speaking philosopher considered in the book is Kierke
ApPENDIX: A SHORT BIBLIOGRAPHY 443
gaard, who wrote in Danish.
The volume has been entitled Fichte to Nietzsche, as Nietzsche
is the last world-famous philosopher who is considered at any
length. It might indeed have been called Fickte to Heidegger. For
not only have a good many philosophers been mentioned who were
chronologically posterior to Nietzsche, but also in the last chapter
a glance has been taken at German philosophy in the first half of
the twentieth century. But I decided that" to call the volume
Fichte to Heidegger would tend to mislead prospective readers. For
it would suggest that twentieth-century philosophers such as
Hussed, N. Hartmann, Jaspers and Heidegger are treated, so to
speak, for their own sake, in the same way as Fichte, Schelling and
Hegel, whereas in fact they are discussed briefly as illustrating
different ideas of the nature and scope of philosophy.
In the present work there are one or two variations from the
pattern generally followed in preceding volumes. The introductory
chapter deals only with the idealist movement, and it has therefore
been placed within Part I, not before it. And though in the final
chapter there are some retrospective reflections, there is also, as
already indicated, a preview of thought in the first half of the
twentieth century. Hence I have called this chapter 'Retrospect
and Prospect' rather than 'Concluding Review'. Apart from the
reasons given in the text for referring to twentieth-century thought
there is the reason that I do not propose to include within this
History any full-scale treatment of the philosophy of. the present
century. At the same time I did not wish to end the volume
abruptly without any reference at all to later developments. The
result is, of course, that one lays oneself open to the comment that
ix
x PREFACE PREFACE xi
it would be better to say nothing about these developments than Sickness unto Death, Concluding Unscientific Postscript and The
to make some sketchy and inadequate remarks. However, I Concept of Dread. In the case of quotations from philosophers
decided to risk this criticism. other than Kierkegaard I have translated the passages myself.
To economize on space I have confined the Bibliography at the But I have frequently given page-references to existing English
end of the book to general works and to works by and on the major translations for the benefit of readers who wish to consult a
figures. As for minor philosophers, many of their writings are translation rather than the original. In the case of minor figures,
mentioned at the appropriate places in the text. In view of the however, I have generally omitted references to translations.
number both of nineteenth-century philosophers and of their
publications, and in view of the vast literature on some of the
major figures, anything like a full bibliography is. out of the
question. In the case of the twentieth-century thinkers mentioned
in the final chapter, some books are referred to in the text or in
footnotes, but no explicit bibliography has been given. Apart from
the problem of space I felt that it would be inappropriate to supply,
for example, a bibliography on Heidegger when he is only briefly
mentioned.
The present writer hopes to devote a further volume, the eighth
in this History, to some aspects of French and British thought in
the nineteenth century. But he does not propose to spread his net
any farther. Instead he plans, circumstances permitting, to turn in
a supplementary volume to what may be called the philosophy of
the history of philosophy, that is, to reflection on the development
of philosophical thought rather than to telling the story of this
development.
A final remark. A friendly critic observed that this work would
be more appropriately called A History of Western Philosophy or
A History of European Philosophy than A History of Philosophy
without addition. For there is no mention, for instance, of Indian
philosophy. The critic was, of course, quite right. But I should like
to remark that the omission of Oriental philosophy is neither an
oversight nor due to any prejudice on the author's part. The
composition of a history of Oriental philosophy is a work .for a
specialist and requires a knowledge of the relevant languages which
the present writer does not possess. Brehier included a volume on
Oriental philosophy in his Histoire de la philosophie, but it was not
written by Brehier.
Finally I have pleasure in expressing my gratitude to the
Oxford University Press for their kind pennission to quote from
Kierkegaard's The Point of View and Fear and Trembling according
to the English translations published by them, and to the Princeton
University Press for similar permission to quote from Kierkegaard's
A HISTORY
OF
PHILOSOPHY
PART I
POST·KANTIAN IDEALIST SYSTEMS
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Preliminary remarks-Kant's philosoPhy and idealist meta·
physics-The meaning of idealism, its insistence 9n system and
its confidence in the power and scope of philosophy-The
idealists and theology-The romantic movement and German
idealism-The difficulty in fuljilJing the idealist programme
The anthropomorphic element in German idealism-Idealist
philosophies of man.
1. IN the German philosophical world during the early part of the
nineteenth century we find one of the most remarkable flowerings
of metaphysical speculation which have occurred in the long
history of western philosophy. We are presented with a succession
of systems, of original interpretations of reality and of human life
and history, which possess a grandeur that can hardly be called in
question and which are still capable of exercising on some minds at
least a peculiar power of fascination. For each of the leading
philosophers of the period professes to solve the riddle of the world,
to reveal the secret of the universe and the meaning of human
existence.
True, before the death of Schelling in 1854 Auguste Comte in
France had already published his Course of Positive Philosophy in
which metaphysics was represented as a passing stage in the history
of human thought. And Germany was to have its own positivist
and materialist movements which, while not killing metaphysics,
would force metaphysicians to reflect on and define more closely
the relation between philosophy and the particular sciences. But
in the early decades of the nineteenth century the shadow of
positivism had not yet fallen across the scene and speculative
philosophy enjoyed a period of uninhibited and luxuriant growth.
With the great German idea~sts we find a superb confidence in the
power of the human reason and in the scope of philosophy. Looking
on reality as the self·manifestation of infinite reason, they thought
I
2 POST -KANTIAN IDEALIST SYSTEMS INTRODUCTION 3
that the life of self-expression of this reason could be retraced in have nothing of value to offer. German idealism has its fantastic
philosophical reflection. They were not nervous men looking over aspects, but the writings of the leading idealists are very far from
their shoulders to see if critics were whispering that they were being all fantasy.
producing poetic effusions under the thin disguise of theoretical 2. The point which we have to consider here is not, however, the
philosophy, or that their profundity and obscure language were a collapse of German idealism but its rise. And this indeed stands in
mask for lack of clarity of thought. On the contrary, they were need of some explanation. On the one hand the immediate philo
convinced that the human spirit had at last come into its own and sophical background of the idealist movement was provided by the
that the nature of reality was at last clearly revealed to human critical philosophy of Immanuel Kant, who had attacked the claims
consciousness. And each set out his vision of the Universe with a of metaphysicians to provide theoretical knowledge of reality. On
splendid confidence in its objective truth. the other hand the German idealists looked on themselves as the
It can, of course, hardly be denied that German idealism makes true spiritual successors of Kant and not as simply reacting against
on most people today the impression of belonging to another world, his ideas: What we have to explain, therefore, is how metaphysical
to another climate of thought. And we can say that the death of idealism could develop out of the system of a thinker whose name
Hegel in 1831 marked the end of an epoch. For it was followed by is for ever as~ociated with scepticism about metaphysics' claim to
the collapse of absolute idealisml and the emergence of other lines provide us with theoretical knowledge about reality as a whole or
of thought. Even metaphysics took a different tum. And the indeed about any reality other than the a priori structure of
superb confidence in the power and range of speculative philosophy human knowledge and experience.1
which was characteristic of Hegel in particular has never been The most convenient starting-point for an explanation of the
regained. But though German idealism sped through the sky like a development of metaphysical idealism out of the critical philosophy
rocket and after a comparatively short space of time disintegrated is the Kantian notion of the thing-in-itseIP In Fichte's view Kant
and fell to earth, its flight was extremely impressive. Whatever its had placed himself in an impossible position by steadfastly
shortcomings, it represented one of the most sustained attempts refusing to abandon this notion. On the one hand, if Kant had
which the history of thought has known to achieve a unified asserted the existence of the thing-in-itself as cause of the given or
conceptual mastery of reality and experience as a whole. And even material element in sensation, he would have been guilty of an
if the presuppositions of idealism are rejected, the idealist systems obvious inconsistency. For according to his own philosophy the
can still retain the power of stimulating the natural impulse of the concept of cause cannot be used to extend our knowledge beyond
reflective mind to strive after a unified conceptual synthesis. the phenomenal sphere. On the other hand, if Kant retained the
Some are indeed convinced that the elaboration of an overall idea of the thing-in-itself simply as a problematical and limiting
view of reality is not the proper task of scientific philosophy. And notion, this was tantamount to retaining a ghostly relic of the very
even those who do not share this conviction may well think that dogmatism which it was the mission of the critical philosophy to
the achievement 6f a final systematic synthesis lies beyond the overcome. Kant's Copernican revolution was a great step forward,
capacity of anyone man and is more of an ideal goal than a and for Fichte there could be no question of moving backwards to
practical possibility. But we should be prepared to recognize a pre-Kantian position. If one had any understanding of the
intellectual stature when we meet it. Hegel in particular towers up development of philosophy and of the demands of modem thought,
in impressive grandeur above the vast majority of those who have one could only go forward and complete Kant's work~ And this
tried to belittle him. And we can always learn from an outstanding meant eliminating the thing-in-itself. For, given Kant's premisses,
philosopher, even if it is only by reflecting on our reasons for dis there was no room for an unknowable occult entity supposed to be
agreeing with him. The historical collapse of metaphysical idealism independent of mind. In other words, the critical philosophy had to
does not necessarily entail the conclusion that the great idealists
. 1 I say .'could develop' because reflection on Kant's philosophy can lead to
1 The fact that there were later idealist movements in Britain, America. Italy dIfferent hnes of thought, according to the aspects which one emphasizes. See
and elsewhere does not alter the fact that after Hegel metaphysical idealism in Vol. VI, pp. 433-4.
Germany suffered an eclipse. I See Vol. VI, pp. 268-72, 384-6.