15 Aneta Gołębiowska-Tobiasz Precious and decorative stones and other raw minerals in ...

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ROSSICA ANTIQUA. 2014 (1)

Aneta Gołębiowska-Tobiasz

Precious and decorative stones and other raw minerals
in Polovtsian burial inventories
(11th – beginning of 13th century).

Драгоценные камни (органические и минеральные), а также некоторые
другие декоративные материалы из горных пород и окаменелостей оказывались
в составe украшений половецких элит, мигрирующих из Заволжья на запад, в
пределы пояса причерноморской степи и Предкавказья. Некоторые из драго-
ценных камней стали элементом строго определенного дресс-кода. Они сооб-
щали о возрасте, социальном статусе владельца, определяли его пол и роль в
обществе. Янтарь происходящий из Поморско-Самбийского пласта и, вероятно,
горный хрусталь путешествовали через Киевскую Русь и Волжскую Болгарию в
степь Причерноморья. Сердолик, агат, лазурит, коралл и некоторые жемчужины
были импортированы в среду кочевников главным образом, через Великий
Шелковый Путь. Мел и речной жемчуг, вероятно, были местного происхожде-
ния.
Ключевые слова: декоративные камни, янтарь, погребальные инвентаря,
Половцы, Великий Шелковый Путь.

Precious stones, due to their coloration, gloss, structure, inclu-
sions and rarity attracted interest of humanity from prehistoric times.
As early as Palaeolithic they were used to produce tools (mountain
crystal, chalcedony, obsidian). Due to their aesthetic values they were
used for ornamental and magic purposes, and therefore they quickly
became an indicator of high social status of their owners and im-
portant component of religious rites. Ornaments and magic items
(amulets, talismans) made of decorative stones and with the oldest
application include those made of, among others, amber, coral, pearls,
mountain crystal, amethyst, serpentine, garnet, jasper, lapis lazuli and
turquoise1.
Gemstones (organic and mineral) as well as rocks accompanied
Polovtsian elites migrating from the Transvolga region to the west and

1 Schumann W. Kamienie szlachetne i ozdobne. Warszawa, 2011. P. 8.

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overtaking new encampments in the range of Black Sea steppe and
Ciscaucasia. Their presence is recorded by archaeologist during ex-
ploratory researches conducted in burial complexes containing burial
inventories belonging to the social stratum of Polovtsian horse warri-
ors and their spouses2. Some of precious stones became an element of
strictly defined dress code: they were not only a distinguishing feature
of gender, social status of an owner, but also informed about age and
attributes of a person who wore them or his/her role within the com-
munity.

Amber

A luxurious and rare raw mineral used to make decorations worn
by the social stratum of Polovtsian aristocracy was amber. It belongs
to category of decorative and precious stones of organic origins3.
There is no doubt that amber adornments getting to steppes were com-
ing from Pomeranian-Sambian succinite. According to recent physical
and chemical analysis extraction of amber from the Dnieper deposits4
was impossible due to technological reasons. The beginning of explo-
ration of those deposits is dated back to 17th century5. Baltic succinite,
through the Daugava route, reached Novgorod, Old Ryazan, Murom
and Vladimir on Klyaz’ma River, and then, after initial treatment,
travelled further along the Volga River through Volga Bulgaria to the

2 For archeology only burials of Polovtsian aristocracy and horse warriors are
perceptible. It is not known, how bodies of lower social strata were buried.
3 Schumann W. Kamienie szlachetne… P. 10.
4 Amber occurred also in the middle and lower course of Dnieper.
5 Information from dr Katarzyna Kwiatkowska and dr Inna Kuzina, for which I
would like to express my thanks. See also: Колтовой Н. А., Мацуй В. М. Флуорес-
центные методы исследования янтаря // Матеріали Міжнародного наукового
семінару «Від смоли хвойних до бурштину. Ідентифікація викопних смол»
м. Київ 17 травня. Київ, 2012. C. 24-27; Хамайко Н. В., Колтовой М. О., Жу-
рухіна О. Ю. Бурштин з археологічних розкопок Київського Пoдолу 2008 р. //
Матеріали Міжнародного наукового семінару «Від смоли хвойних до бурштину.
Ідентифікація викопних смол» м. Київ 17 травня. Київ, 2012. C. 58-61.

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southeast6. The second lane of an old trade route led to the south, to
Kiev7. The key role of northern Rus’ trade centres in distribution of
the Pomeranian-Sambian amber is confirmed by analysis of recently
discovered mediaeval depot of amber in Vladimir on Klyaz’ma River
weighing 200 kg8. It was located in an underground chamber of a
building that burned down in 12389.
Amber beads and pendants played not only decorative, but also
magical role. According to beliefs among Turks bead necklaces were
related to the fertility magic. Usually barrel or spherical shape beads
were made of amber. In order to highlight their visual values the cab-
ochon cut was applied. There are also specimens made with a tech-
nique similar to the facet cut making a bead tetragonal in cross-section
(e.g. Josipovka grave 710). Items with smaller diameter were used in
necklaces and as decorations of caftans (site: Rosava grave 8, mound
211; Romashkino mound 112; Davydovka mound 1513; Kamenka

6 Шаповалов Р. Г. Обработка янтаря в средневековом Новгороде // Новгород
и Новгородская Земля. История и археология Новгорода. 1998. Выпуск 12. C. 10.
Available at: http://www.bibliotekar.ru/rusNovgorod/71.htm (accessed 06.09.2014);
Зеленцова О. В., Кузина И. Н., Милованов С. И., Черненко В. В. Янтарь из раско-
пок в древнейшей части Владимира-на-Клязьме // Балтийский янтарь. Наука.
Культура. Экономика. Материалы международного научного симпозиума «Добы-
ча и обработка янтаря на Самбии», Калининград, 12-14 мая 2010 г. Калининград-
ский музей янтаря, Калининград, 2010. C. 80-81; Зеленцова О. В., Кузина И. Н.,
Милованов С. И. Amber trade in Medieval Rus’: the current state and prospects for
research // The international amber research symposium. Gdańsk, 2013. P. 80; Великий
Болгар (Атлас из серии «Tartarica»). Мoсквa; Казань, 2013. С. 88-90, 95.
7 Гупало К. Н., Ивакин Г. Ю. O ремесленном производстве на Киевском По-
доле // Советская археология. 1980. №. 2. C. 212; Зеленцова О. В., Кузина И. Н.,
Милованов С. И. Amber trade in Medieval Rus’… P. 79.
8 Колтовой Н. А., Мацуй В. М. Флуоресцентные методы… C. 27.
9 Зеленцова О. В., Кузина И. Н., Милованов С. И., Черненко В. В. Янтарь из
раскопок… C. 75-76; Зеленцова О. В. Кузина И. Н. Раскопки во Владимире. 2013.
Available at: http://www.archaeolog.ru/?id=226 (accessed 18.03.2014).
10 Беляев О. С., Молодчикова I. O. Похования кочiвникiв на р. Орель // Ар-
хeoлoгiя. 1978. №. 28. C. 90; 91: photo 7.2.
11 Dąbrowska E. Kurhany rassawskie // Archeologia. 1958. Nr 8, zeszyt 1. 1956.
P. 131; 166: tabl. VII.1, VII.10-12.
12 Ольховский В. С. Исследования в Сакском районе Крымa // Археологиче-
ские открытия 1982 года. М., 1984. C. 309.
13 Кубышев А. И. Работы Западнокрымской экспедиции // Археологические
открытия 1986 года. М., 1988. C. 300.

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mound 1, group of mounds II14). Exceptionally, wire threaded beads
(including amber specimen) decorated female wrist (Josipovka grave
715). Large amber specimens were transformed into pendants. Usually,
these were rhomboidal pendants with flat cross-section with asymmet-
rical hole or spherical forms with a centrally drilled hole. Surface of
decoration was carefully polished and sometimes also decorated with
a groove. Pendants are present mainly in female burials (site: Ro-
mashkino mound 116; Sokolovo grave II, mound 3, group of mounds
IV17) (Tabl. – no. 1).
Adornments made of amber, through Ruthenian merchants, got to
Crimea and Ciscaucasia and to Northern Caucasia. The main transit
trade centre, linking the Black Sea area cities with Caucasia and By-
zantium at the end of 10th – 12th century was Tmutorakan18. In this
area amber beads were found in graves of warriors (site: Krasnyi
mound 219; Tsemdolina grave 1620). In the latter one beads were frag-
ments of horse’s harness decorations.
Import of amber continued even after the Mongol invasion. It
was still a highly valued raw mineral, both among women and men
from the highest social stratum. Two massive amber beads of a dou-
ble-cone shape constituted a decoration of a Polovtsian woman’s kaf-

14 Косиков В. А., Гриб В. К. Парное кочевническое погребение из кургана у
села Каменка в Донецкой области // Советская археология. 1985. №. 2. C. 260.
15 Беляев О. С., Молодчикова I. O. Похования кочiвникiв…C. 90; 91:
photo 7.2.
16 Ольховский В. С. Исследования в Сакском районе…C. 309.
17 Шалoбудов В. Н. Позднекочевнические погребения с керамикой (по мате-
риалам экспедиции ДГУ) // Проблемы археологии Поднепровья. Межвузовский
сборник научных трудов. Днепропетровск. 1993. C. 95; 96: fig. 2.3.
18 Алексеева Е. П. Находки славяно-русского облика X – XIV вв. на Север-
ном Кавказе // Вoпросы археологии и средневековой истории Карачаево-
Черкесии. Сборник научных трудов. Черкесск, 1989. C. 106-107.
19 Черепанова Е. Н., Щепинский А. А. Погребения поздних кочевников в
степном Крыму // Археологические исследования средневекового Крыма. Киев,
1968. C. 195.
20 Армарчук E. A., Малышев A. A. Средневековый могильник в Цемесской
Долине // Историко-археологический Альманах. Армавир-Москва. 1991. Вып. 3.
C. 106; 100: fig. 7.5-6.

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tan (presumably a clasp) from the site Vysokaya Gora (mound 3)21
(Tabl. – no. 3). Amber pendant carefully elaborated into a rhomboidal
shape hung on a warrior’s chest, perhaps protecting him from the
«evil eye» (site: Dubovky22) (Tabl. – no. 2). Burials were dated back
to the end of 13th – beginning of 14th century.

Map 1.

Amber served as a raw material for gems embedded in metal ap-
plications of attire and for the amber mass used to encrust metal. An
exceptional example of an application of amber mass in decorations is

21 Кравец В. В., Березуцкий В. Д., Бойков А. А. Погребения кочевой знати зо-
лотоордынского времени в курганной группе «Высокая гора» на юге Воронеж-
ской области // Донская археология Ростов на Дону. № 3-4. 2000. C. 119; 124: fig.
7.11-12.
22 Шалoбудов В. Н. Ещё раз о находках распрямленных гривен в половецких
погребениях // Исследования по археологии Поднепровья. Днепропетровск, 1990.
C. 116; 114: fig. 3.4.

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a set of ceremonial weaponry of Polovtsian Khan from the site Zamo-
zhnoye including a shield, side quiver and quiver. In a central point of
each of these objects there is a gold-plated silver circular frame with
embedded cone made of the amber mass. Each such ornament was
attached to the surface of weaponry element with silver pins. An am-
ber knob of a sabre head was also made of the amber mass in a Rus’
workshop23. All items were custom-made.
Amber occurred in the Polovtsian community almost simultane-
ously with their migration to the Black Sea area, which is ascertained
by the earliest dated finds of this type (end of 10th – 11th century).
During the Polovtsian domination until turmoil period associated with
the Mongol invasion it was used mainly as a decoration of high born
women. It occurs also in Polovtsian aristocracy graves related to so-
cial and military structures of the Golden Horde period (Map 1) 24.

Mountain crystal

Another material that with high probability through Rus’ work-
shops got to the south, to the steppe area was mountain crystal. It is a
type of colourless, transparent quartz. This silicate mineral is quite
common on Earth (12% of volume)25. In the Central Europe mountain
crystal was used to produce tools already in the middle Palaeolithic26.
In ancient times in Europe the crystal was extracted from the Alpes. In
Middle Ages Volga Bulgaria served as an intermediary in delivering it
to the Rus’ and Blats lands. Large deposits of mountain crystal were
located in an immediate vicinity of the sphere of influence of Volga
Bulgaria: in central and northern Urals and their exploration started

23 Отрощенко B. B., Рассамакін Ю. Я. Половецький комплекс Чингульсько-
го курганa // Архeoлoгiя. 1986. №. 53. C. 25-28; 21: fig. 6.1-2, 6.4.
24 For map making I want to thank PhD Stsiapan Tsemushau.
25 Liber-Madziarz E., Teisseyre B. Mineralogia i petrografia. Wrocław, 2000.
P. 91.
26 Lisowska E. Wydobycie i dystrybucja surowców kamiennych we wczesnym
średniowieczu na Dolnym Śląsku. Instytut Archeologii. Wrocław, 2014. P. 145.

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already in the late Palaeolithic27. Another source of this stone is India,
where it was imported from as finished products (beads, gems, in-
serts) to Volga Bulgaria28. Deposits of mountain crystal occurred also
in Transcaucasia29. The crystal as a jewellery material started to be
used in Rus’ in 10th century. Indian mountain crystal was imported as
a finished products (e.g. inserts) from Volga Bulgaria30. In workshops
of Rus’ jewellers thin mineral was transformed mainly into spherical
beads.
In the Polovtsian environment adornments made of mountain
crystal were worn on neck, as necklaces, on wrists as bracelets or used
to decorate hems of mirrors (Filatovka31; Josipovka grave 732, Petro-
pavlovka grave 2, mound I, group of mounds V33). The crystal was
used to produce other, exceptional adornments. This is evidenced by a
find of a massive pendant polished in a form of an oval lens with
plane-convex cross-section (female burial, site: Novoivanovka34, or
ceremonial horse’s harness separator in a horse burial no. 2, made
with a facet cut (square in cross-section, pentagonal in longitudinal
section with a cross-like opening in Zamozhnoye, male burial35).
The datation of sited closes within 11th – 13th century.

27 Information about tools from late Paleolithic from sites located in Subpolar
Ural i have received from MA Yu. Koval and for that I would like to thank him. –
Кварц и его разновидности («Семейство кварца»). Available at:
http://mindraw.web.ru/mineral1.htm (accessed 18.05.2014).
28 Великий Болгар. C. 110.
29 Аксентон Ю. Б. Дорогие камни в культуре древней Руси (по памятником
прикладного исскуства и литературы XI – XV веков): дисс. …. кандидата ист.
наук. Л., 1973. C. 204: map.
30 Великий Болгар. C. 110.
31 Бессонова С. С., Черных Л. А., Купрый С. А. Курганы у с. Филатовка //
Курганы степного Крыма. Киев, 1984. C. 59; 58: fig. 12.6.
32 Беляев О. С., Молодчикова I. O. Похования кочiвникiв... C. 90; 91:
photo 7.2.
33 Шалoбудов В. Н. Ещё раз о находках распрямленных гривен. C. 110 108:
fig. 1.17.
34 Швецов М. Л. Богате кочівницьке поховання з Донбасу // Археологія.
1974. №. 13. C. 96.
35 Отрощенко B. B., Рассамакін Ю. Я. Половецький комплекс…C. 17.

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An artefact made of mountain crystal, dated back to the Golden
Horde times was found in a burial of Polovtsian woman as an amulet
(site: Russkiy Kolodiets grave 2 mound VII/1136).
Unfortunately they were never subjected to gemmological survey
and therefore it is impossible to clearly determine provenance of these
relics.

Carnelian

A decorative stone, eagerly worn by Polovtsian women as neck-
laces of beads was carnelian. It is a half-translucent type of coloured
silicate mineral – chalcedony with lively, slightly dim, orange and red
colour37. Among Turks adornments made of carnelian were magical.
According to ethnographic data red beads guaranteed an abundance of
children. The red colour was also protective38. The oldest adornments
made of this raw material are dated back to 3 thousand BC and come
from Mesopotamia, occurring up to Pakistani-India area39. Outcrops
of carnelian were located also in India, Mongolia, Tibet, Iran, Egypt
and Asia Minor. In Middle Ages carnelian was imported to the steppe
area mainly through the Silk Road40. An intermediary in the carnelian
trade from India was Volga Bulgaria41. Carnelian in various shades
occurs also in the Kara-Dar Massif, Crimea and northern Caucasus42.
Carnelian bead necklaces were often discovered in funeral inven-
tories in the North Caucasus in graves linked with Alans. Along with
people from North Caucasus migrating after turbid events at the be-
ginning of 8th century the carnelian beads reached also new areas – in
the Middle Seversky Donets Basin. They were found in female inven-

36 Илюков Л. С., Казакова Л. М. Курганы Миусского Полуострова. Ростов-
на-Дону, 1988. C. 129.
37 Liber-Madziarz E., Teisseyre B. Mineralogia i petrografia… P. 92.
38 Львова Э. Л., Октябрьская И. В., Сагалаев А. М., Усманова М. С. Тради-
ционное мировоззрение тюрков Южной Сибири. Пространство и время. Вещный
мир. Новосибирск, 1988. C. 174.
39 Lisowska E. Wydobycie i dystrybucja… P. 145.
40 Аксентон Ю.Б. Дорогие камни…C. 204: map.
41 Великий Болгар. C. 110.
42 Беляев О. С., Молодчикова I. O. Похования кочiвникiв… C. 90.

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tories, in burials dated back to the end of 8th – 10th century43. The fre-
quent occurrence of this adornments in Caucasus supports the hypoth-
esis that they arrived at the Black Sea steppe area from the east. Beads
were made using cabochon cut.

Map 2.

Dating and mapping of Polovtsian sites do not help solving the issue
of sources from which this material get to nomadic environment
(Map 2). It occurs in inventory dated back to 11th century until
13th century. Unfortunately, an analysis of chemical composition was
never performed. With high probability it can be assumed that the
stone was preliminary processed in areas, where it was mined. To-
gether with merchants it travelled along trade routers to the west or

43 Плетнева С. А. На славяно-хазарском пограничье. Дмитриевский архео-
логический комплекс. М, 1989. C. 121.

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along one of lines of routes leading through Central and Western Asia
to Volga Region and further to Volga Bulgaria.
Carnelian beads marked burials of Polovtsian women. These
were adornments of a spherical shape made with a cabochon cut with
a drilled opening (Davydovka mound 1544; Josipovka45; Kamenka
mound I group of mounds II46, burial of a girl from Kurakhovo47,
Zimovniki48; Pokrovskoye mound E49). Additionally, also a cut simi-
lar to facet was used (with a hexagonal cross-section – Josipovka
grave 750.
Exceptionally, carnelian beads were present also a rich burial of
«er» from Tsemdolina as a decoration of horse’s harness (grave 1651).

Agate

Agate, and particularly scarlet and orange types of this coloured
silicate mineral are commonly confused with carnelian and is also a
type of chalcedony52. Its structure includes multi-coloured, alternately
arranged ribbons. In ancient times it was extracted in Sicily53. Agate
outcrops occurred also in Urals and Crimea (including the Kara-Dar
Massif and sources of the Alma River), in Southern Caucasus and In-
dia54. In Egypt the stone was dedicated to the Iris goddess. It was be-
lieved that it had powers to stop haemorrhages.

44 Кубышев А. И. Работы Западнокрымской экспедиции. C. 300.
45 Беляев О .С., Молодчикова I. O. Похования кочiвникiв… C. 90.
46 Косиков В. А., Гриб В. К. Парное кочевническое погребение… C. 258.
47 Стороженко С. Раскопки Кураховской курганной группы // Археологи-
ческие открытия 1970 года. М., 1971. C. 297.
48 Парусимов И. Н. Новочеркасская экспедиция // Археологические откры-
тия 1996 года. М., 1997. C. 222.
49 Ларенок В. А. Средневековые комплексы из раскопок братьев Миллеров в
начале XX в. // Донская Археология. 1998. №. 1. C. 79.
50 Беляев О. С., Молодчикова I. O. Похования кочiвникiв…C. 90; 91:
photo 7.2.
51 Армарчук E. A., Малышев A. A. Средневековый могильник… C. 106.
52 Liber-Madziarz E., Teisseyre B. Mineralogia i petrografia…P. 92.
53 Lisowska E. Wydobycie i dystrybucja…P. 145.
54 Schumann W. Kamienie szlachetne…P. 146, 150.

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